Annadurai T, Venkateshan N, SenthilKumar S. R. Green Synthesis of Silver and Copper Nanoparticles: Methods, Properties, Applications, and Environmental. Biomed Pharmacol J 2026;19(2).

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Manuscript received on :16-11-2025
Manuscript accepted on :26-02-2026
Published online on: 08-05-2026

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Plagiarism Check: Yes
Reviewed by: Dr. Kasthuri NMK
Second Review by: Dr. Niharika Kondepudi
Final Approval by: Dr. Anton R Keslav

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Thenmozhi Annadurai ^1*, Narayanan Venkateshan ², Sudalaimuthu Ramachandran SenthilKumar ³

¹Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Arulmigu Kalasalingam College of Pharmacy, Krishnankoil, Virudhunagar, Tamil Nadu, India

²Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Arulmigu Kalasalingam College of Pharmacy, Krishnankoil, Virudhunagar, Tamil Nadu, India.

³Department of Pharmaceutics, Sri K. Ramachandran Naidu  College of Pharmacy, Sankarankovil, Tenkasi, Tamil Nadu, India.

Corresponding Author: E-mail: Srimozhi2005@yahoo.co.in

Abstract

Silver and copper nanoparticles have attracted considerable research interest due to their diverse physicochemical properties and wide range of applications, particularly when synthesized using green approaches. This review summarizes literature published between 2000 and 2025 on the biosynthesis of silver and copper nanoparticles, with a focus on plant-mediated synthesis methods, synthesis mechanisms, physicochemical characteristics, applications, and environmental and toxicological considerations. Relevant studies were identified using keywords such as “green synthesis of nanoparticles,” “silver nanoparticles,” “copper nanoparticles,” “characterization,” and “environmental aspects.” Plant-based synthesis commonly produces nanoparticles with acceptable stability and biocompatibility while reducing the use of hazardous chemicals. Silver nanoparticles demonstrate notable antimicrobial activity against a broad spectrum of microorganisms, whereas copper nanoparticles show potential in catalysis, electronics, and antimicrobial applications. Both silver and copper nanoparticles have been investigated for use in drug delivery, wound healing, and water purification, with their functional performance influenced by parameters such as particle size, morphology, structure, and surface chemistry. Despite the advantages of green synthesis, concerns related to toxicity and environmental impact remain. Available studies indicate that nanoparticle behavior and biological effects depend on concentration, exposure duration, and environmental conditions. Overall, green synthesis of silver and copper nanoparticles using plant sources represents a promising alternative to conventional methods; however, further systematic studies are required to better understand long-term safety and environmental implications.

Keywords

Antimicrobial; Characterization techniques; Copper nanoparticles; Drug delivery; Green synthesis; Nanoparticles; Silver nanoparticles

Introduction

Nanotechnology   is a fast-growing area sector of science that understanding with materials at an extremely small scale—between 1 and 100 nanometers. At this level, materials show special properties like increased surface area and unusual chemical behaviour, which make them useful in medicine, electronics, environmental solutions, and material science.¹Green synthesis is the promising way for the production of NPs, which uses natural sources like plants and microorganisms instead of harmful chemicals. This approach follows the ideas ofsustainable chemistry, aiming to reduce pollution and make the process safer and more sustainable.²Now a days it is become more popular because traditional chemical methods often involve toxic substances and create harmful by-products.Among natural sources, plant extracts are mainly  useful for nanoparticle synthesis. It contains  phytocompounds that act as both reducing and stabilizing agents. Among all plant materials, Caesalpinia bonducellamost suitable for synthesis of Cu as well Ag NPs. Caesalpinia bonducellacommonly known as fever nut or nicker nut. It is well-known traditional medicine for its anti-Swelling, antidiabetic, as well as antimicrobial properties.³These medicinal effects come from bioactive compounds like bioflavonoids, alkaloids, and Isoprenoids, which also make the plant a strong candidate for nanoparticle production.Both types of nanoparticles have drawn interest because of their useful properties—silver for its antimicrobial strength and copper for its role in catalysis and electronics. By examining their synthesis, properties, and applications, this article highlights how green nanotechnology could offer eco-friendly solutions to current scientific and industrial challenges.⁴ In addition, we will discuss how these Silver and Copper nanoparticles are studied through various characterization techniques, explore their possible uses in medicine and industry, and consider the environmental safety of their production and use.⁵This sets the stage for understanding how green nanotechnology can move forward responsibly while addressing real-world problems.

Green Synthesis of Copper And Silver Nanoparticles

Green Synthesis or Biosynthesis is a safer approach for making Silver NPs and copper NPs. ⁶ The green way of synthesis gained significant attention as scientists look for safer ways to create nanomaterials without harming the environment.⁷ Many biological materials applicable for green approach synthesis of copper NPs as well as silver NPs, including plant derived compound extracts, together serve as a reducing as well as Stabilizing agents. This helps in generating a stable nanoparticle along with simplifies the production process. ² It lowers the environmental impact. Since it relies on renewable and biodegradable resources, It reduces waste and pollution compared to chemical methods.^5-7 It also lowers the cost of waste disposal and can be more budget-friendly overall, as it uses easily available natural materials and requires less energy.⁸ Because of all these above benefits, biosynthesis is becoming a preferred choice in the sector of nano-technology. Another key benefit is its low energy requirement. Most green approach of synthesis of silver NPs and copper NPs methods work at ambient condition or use low-energy tools like microwaves or ultrasound, which use much less energy than the high heat and pressure needed in traditional methods. These eco-friendly techniques also aim to reduce waste by adjusting reaction settings and making use of leftover materials whenever possible.¹¹ Various biological materials have been carried out successfully used in biosynthesis of Cu and Ag NPs due to their natural reducing and stabilizing capacity. Table 1 summarizes the major biological sources—including plants, microbes, algae, and biomolecules—commonly used for synthesizing nanoparticles, along with relevant examples and their key bioactive components. Several eco-friendly synthesis methods have been developed to replace energy-intensive and hazardous chemical techniques. Table 2 provides an overview of commonly used green synthesis methods, including aqueous, room temperature, microwave-assisted, sonochemical, and photocatalytic approaches, highlighting their advantages and applications.

Table 1: Biological Sources for Green Synthesis of Nanoparticles

Table 2: Green Synthesis Methods for Nanoparticles

Characterization of Silver and Copper Nanoparticles

The characterization of AgNPs and CuNPs is crucial for understanding their physicochemical properties and potential applications.UV-visible spectroscopy is widelyimplemented tovalidate NPsconfiguration andevaluate their optical properties. AgNPs typically exhibit a SPRpeak between 400-450 nm, while CuNPs show a broader peak around 560-580 nm.²³ Fourier transform infrared radiationspectroscopy helps identify the surface bond chemical groups present on the NPssurface, providing insights into the capping agents and potential interplay with biological systems.²⁴ XRDanalysis is crucial foridentifying the crystallinestructure andphasehomogeneity of SilverNPs and Copper NPs. AgNPs generally exhibit FCC structure with characteristic peaks at 2θ values of 38.1°, 44.3°, 64.5°, and 77.5°, parallel  to the (111), (200), (220), and (311) planes, respectively.²⁵CuNPs also display an FCC structure with peaks at 43.3°, 50.4°, and 74.1°, representing the (111), (200), and (220) planes. SEM and TEM facilitate to give a majorly valuable information on nanoparticle morphology, size distribution, and aggregation state. AgNPs are often spherical or quasi-spherical, while CuNPs can exhibit various structured, including circle, 3 D square form , and rod-like shape.²⁶

DLS and Zetapotential analysis offer crucial insights into the fluid dynamic dimensions  and surfacecharge  of NPs , respectively. These parameters notably impact the stability along with biological activity of AgNPs and CuNPs. Generally, AgNPs exhibit smaller hydrodynamic sizes (10-50 nm) compared to CuNPs (20-100 nm), while both types of nanoparticles typically display negative zeta potentials (-20 to -40 mV) in aqueous dispersions.²⁷ The morphological and optical characteristics of AgNPs and CuNPs act as avital role to identify  their biological activity, particularly in antimicrobial and anticancer applications. Decreased size ofNPs with higher SA : V ratio tend to indicate improved  antimicrobial efficacy due to maximized cellular absorption  and synthesis of ROS. Additionally, the SPR characterization of AgNPs and CuNPs contribute to their photothermal effects, which can be exploited for targeted cancer therapy.²⁸ The table 3&4illustrates Studies example forcharacterization silvernanoparticle andcopper nanoparticle.The sequential steps involved in nanoparticle characterization are depicted in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Steps Involved in Characterization of Nanoparticles Click here to view Figure

Table 3: Studies example for characterization of  silver nanoparticle

Table 4 : Studies examples for Characterization of Copper NPs

FCC – Face centred cubic, CuNPs – copper nanoparticles

Opportunistic Bioactivities of Copper and Silver Nanoparticles

Silver and copper nanoparticles’ broad-spectrum bioactivities imply that they have the ability to alleviate various disorder. It mainly used for cancer management, Infectious disease management, cardiac disorder and various genetic disorder.Both NPs play anvital role in therapeutical sector. Studies are going for enhancing the both copper and silver nanoparticle for the application of therapeutical sector. The following table 5&6 illustrate the studies examples  bioactivity studies of both silver and copper nanoparticle.^43,44The diverse biological applications of nanoparticles are summarized in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Biological Application of Nanoparticle Click here to view Figure

Table 5: Studies examples for bioactivities of  copper nanoparticles

Table 6: Studies example for Bioactivity of Silver Nanoparticle

Antimicrobial Activities of the Nanoparticles

The rise of  multidrug resistant microbes has prompted the exploration of alternative anti-microbial agents, with nanoparticles emerging as a promising solution. NPs contain specific physiochemical characteristic , includingvery less  and controllable size, large SA : M , and high activity , which can be leveraged to prevail overcome the limitations of conventional antimicrobial therapies.^55,56These properties enable nanoparticles to promote the delivery of antimicrobial therapeutic agent, so it enhancing their effectiveness against a broad spectrum of bacteria.⁵⁷The antimicrobial properties of NPs penetrate biological membrane of bacteria, manipulate cellular processes, and produceROS  that lead to cellular damage and its apoptosis.^55,58The  World wide emergence of muti drug resistant microbes has made the traditional  treatment of infectious diseases increasingly challenging, underscoring the urgent need for another anti-microbial strategies.⁵⁸

Silver nanoparticle have garnered notable attention as potent antimicrobial substances due to their broad range of effectiveAnti-bacterial, Anti-fungal, and Anti-viral activity.⁵⁹Ag NPs can  crossing the bacterial cell wall penetrate bacterial cell walls, alter cell membrane structure, and interfere with cellular mechanism,finallyresults to cell apoptosis. The potential  of Ag NPs  is attributed not only to their nano measurement  size butaddition  to their Increased  SA : V  which improves  their capability to react  with disrupt the microbes.⁶⁰ The antimicrobial mechanism of both silver and copper nanoparticles is illustrated in Figure 3. Table 7& 8 depicted the studies examples for Anti-microbial activities of Silver and copper nanoparticles.

Figure 3: A schematic representation antimicrobial activity of Both Silver and copper nanoparticles. Click here to view Figure

Table 7: Studies example for Anti-microbial activity of silver nanoparticles

Table 8: Studies example for Anti-microbial activity of copper nanoparticles

Environmental and Its Toxicological Aspects of Green Synthesis of Copper and Silver Nanoparticles

Green synthesisNanoparticle have a variety of uses. But it have some environmental  restrictions. And the majority of studies showed that green nanoparticles have several advantages in medicine over other nanoparticles, but the facts are that green nanoparticles have toxicity just like other nanoparticles, but the toxicity is limited in comparison to other nanoparticles, and few studies show that there are no well-studied papers on green nanoparticle toxicity.³⁷

Environmental Aspects of Green Nanoparticle

Green nanoparticles have various purpose environmentally. The major purpose are water treatment, Agriculture fertilizer, Soil remediation and Oily sewage remediating agent. Although it is safer for disposal because of no harmful chemicals are used.

Water Treatment and Purification

Nowadays it is essential to purify drinking water because water from various sources may include hazardous amounts of organic compounds, heavy metals, and bacteria. Water for domestic use is purified using techniques like coagulation, filtration, settling, chlorination, and other chemical methods. Inorganic anions, heavy metals, organic contaminants, and bacteria have all been successfully removed from water using AgNPs  and CuNPs that are more stable, economical, and have a controlled release rate. These AgNPs have demonstrated encouraging promise for use in the treatment of water and wastewater. The extreme toxicity to microbes has led to an increase in their use for water disinfection in recent years. However, direct application of AgNPs may cause them to aggregate in aqueous conditions, which would gradually lower their effectiveness over time. According to several research, AgNPs affixed to filter materials may be a preferable option in this situation to reduce the aggregation issue and be economical with effective antibacterial potential. Significant antibacterial capabilities against E. coli have been demonstrated by the sheets where AgNPs are placed on the cellulose fibers.Furthermore, the standard range of Ag+ in drinking water (0.1 ppm) established by the WHO and environmental protection agency is not exceeded by the loss of Ag+ from such sheets.Furthermore, over the past 20 years, there has been an increase in the efficient use of Ag NPs implanted on ceramic materials or membranes for the disinfection and treatment of domestic water at the point of use. Preventing membrane filter fouling in water treatment systems is yet another application for AgNPs. A study performed by  Das and colleagues . discovered that Copper oxide NPs isolated from the extract of Madhuca longifolia plant had good photocatalytic activity for dissolving methylene blue dye. As a result, itoffers excellent photocatalytic potential for wastewater treatment.^79-81Another work employed Jatropha curcas L. extracts to make TiO2NPs. That study discovered theTitanium dioxide Nanoparticles are effective in the potential photocatalytic treatment of wastewater. The NP eliminated 82.26% of COD and 76.48% ofCr from contaminated water.⁸²

Nano-Fertilizer

Bio- and nano-fertilizers are sustainable materials that may provide plants with essential nutrients, promote plant development, and boost agricultural yields. Biofertilizers, often known as bacterial fertilizers, use living or inactive microorganisms to promote plantdevelopment.⁸³Nanofertilizers are classified into three types: (i) NPs, which include nanoparticles such as Tio2, silica compounds , and Nanotube form of Copper and promote plant development; (ii) essential nutrients in the micro form , which include Cu, Zn, Fe, Mo, Ni, and Mn; and (iii) essential nutrients in the form of macro, which combine Po4, Ca, N2, and K. Several, studies  shows that phosphatic fertilizers in nano form  increased soybean growth by 32% and seed output by 20% when compared to traditional fertilizers.⁸⁴De Franca Bettencourt and colleagues. used green-synthesized AgNPs from onions as a nano form of Biofertilizer for brinjal and tomatoes. Silver nanoparticles were sprayed on the green plants at doses ranging between 5 to 15 mL/L. Raising the nano-fertilizer concentration to 15 mL/litre increased the plant’s effectivity and strength. This outcome can be attributed to onions’ richness of proteins, phosphorus, carbs, and potassium, all of which can help plants development.⁸⁵ Nanofertilizers can not only assist plants survive with numerous stressors including parched condition, infection, and parasites, but they can also cause a variety of biological oriented chemical responses in the body including increasing the plant’s immunological capability as well as promoting the synthesis of auxin. Furthermore, the usage of nanofertilizers helps to boost nutrient solubility in the soil, which improves soil natures and production while also encouraging healthy strong plant development. These ecologically friendly fertilizing agents are created using simple as well as quick procedures. A variety of strategies can be used to stimulate plant growth.⁸⁶

Soil Remediation

The problem of severe soil pollution became worse over time, with increasingly negative consequences for both environmental and human biological origin. Several strategies are used to remediate soil contamination, such asdecontamination recovery.But those methods are time-spending, expensive, and extremely hazardous.It leads to, in situ treatment methods, including the introduction of NPs into the soil, have profitable appeal. Particular green NPs have proven extraordinary success in the recovery of soil impurities such as Strain materials and heavy metals. This is related to their increased mobility, extraordinary responsiveness, less amount of lethal effect, and enough amount of large surface areas.⁸⁷ Zaki et al.⁸⁹used biogenic NPs synthesisZno from Trichoderma harzianum as an fungicidal opposed to soil microbesincluding Macrophomina phaseolina, Rhizoctonia solani, and Fusarium sp. in different cotton cultivars. Zno  antifungal impact varied by cotton cultivar, with Giza90 showing better plant life, length, and weight. This suggests that zinc oxide at 200 μg/mL is highly effective in disease prevention. Using 200 μg/mL of zinc oxide increased plant survival in the Giza94 cultivar, however disease control did not improve survival rates. Nonetheless, zinc oxide demonstrated superior improvements in the strength and length of the Giza94 cultivar.⁸⁸ Furthermore, Kalaba and the colleagues  employed biologically prepared ZnO derived from S. plicatus to suppress plant microorganisms. The demonstrated findings showed that Meloidogyne incognita had a good mortality rate of 96.7% within 3 days. ZnOincreased Vicia faba seed development at concentrations ranging from 12.5-50 μg/mL. biosynthesis NPs  have shown extraordinary success in soil recovery, notably in reduce the  heavy metals including Cd, Ni, Ar, and Cr from polluted soils. Furthermore, these NPs have strong antibacterial effects on many plant diseases, altering plant weight, length, and overall life.⁸⁹

Oily Sewage Remediating Agent

Silver and copper  nanoparticles are important components in oily sewage cleanup solutions because of their antibacterial, catalytic, and antifouling capabilities. They improve treatment efficiency by disturbing oil-water emulsions and limiting bacterial development, which causes fouling in wastewater systems. Silver nanoparticles in nanocomposite membranes prevent membrane fouling during oily wastewater filtration, thus enhancing oil particle removal.Silver nanoparticles added into remediation agents target oily sewage by boosting photocatalytic destruction of organic contaminants and stabilizing emulsions to facilitate separation. Biogenic silver nanoparticles derived from plant extracts promote the breakdown of oily pollutants in industrial effluents. They also have a great capability for adsorbing heavy metals and oils found in sewage.^90,91FeNPs produced from Vaccinium floribundum were used to measure the elimination of  TPHs from H2O . This leads to demonstrated that the reducing condition produced by iron nanoparticles resulted in improved TPH elimination (88.34%).⁹²

Toxicological Aspects of Green Syntesis of Copper and Silver Nanoparticles

Bio synthesis of CuNPs and AgNPs have been beneficial in a variety of a usage due to their size, shape, and catalytic behaviour. However, these features may be unfavourable because their action as an antibacterial agent is not selective to microbes, resulting in a high likelihood of lethal action on human body . This is because of the fact that biosynthesis of cu and AgNPs  have the same size as biological compounds such as group of amino acids, Deoxy Ribo nucleic acids, and enzymes, allowing for easy entrance into live cells and the circulation, from whence they can spread to other body parts.⁹³The tiny green 865 particles may induce cell membrane destruction, oxidative Deoxy Ribo Nucleic Acid destruction, and disrupt the ETCsince they have permeability potential to cell materials and leads to harm when present over a certain threshold. But, the exact inhibitory action has yet to be determined due to a lack of evidence on green nanoparticles’ biological related Response, transport, metabolic process, and organ-specific toxicity mechanism.⁹⁴

Based on Size, Morphology and Surface Charge

Less Size particles  have discovered a clear correlation together with their oxidativeeffectiveness, genetic cell having destruction capacity, and biological behaviour. Particles <50nm are harmful to almost all kinds of cells.⁹⁵These green NPs can remain suspended in the marine and air environments for extended periods of time, exposing live creatures for prolonged periods of time and increasing toxicity.⁹⁶The form of nanoparticles (circular, triangular, star, and tubular) has been shown to alter endocytosis and phagocytosis.⁹⁷ Circular-NPs were discovered to be simply endocytosed.⁹⁸The particle’s surface energy has a strong impact on its aggregation response, which in turn influences toxicity. Furthermore, the surface coat of an organic chemical on a green synthesis of copper and SilverNPs may modify its reactivity, surface energy, surface toughness, and pore shape, either eliminating or inducing toxic properties based on the kind of covering.⁹⁷

Based on Composition of Nanoparticle

Certain aspects of NPs, such as their solubility, surface features, and dosage, might cause lethal effect. These characteristic  may promote (i) oxidization depression through the generation of reactive oxidative sp , which affect the group of  involved in damage restore, cell wall damage, exduation of cellular compounds, and swellingaction, or (ii) genetic toxicity.⁹⁹The vigorous  effects of these Bio NPs on organisms may be assessed using cell culture and  whole organism studies in toxic to cells  experiments. Cytotoxic processes in tumour therapy and drug delivery such as  the formation of Reactive oxygen species , the action of cell death effector enzymes , the deactive of enzymes, and the dose-related  suppression of Adenosine triphosphate synthesis, all of which lead to cell death.¹⁰⁰Particularly, Copper nanoparticles are generally more harmful than silver nanoparticles across a variety of biological systems, owing to increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and metal ion leaching, which are regulated by their composition and surface stabilizers. Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) exhibit lesser human cell toxicity but robust antibacterial activity, whereas copper nanoparticles (CuNPs) produce more ROS in both mammalian and bacterial cells, with PVP-stabilized CuNPs being particularly harmful.¹⁰¹

Future Perspectives

The future of green nanotechnology, particularly in the synthesis of AgNPs and CuNPs with opportunities for innovation and development. Key areas for future exploration include:

Optimization of Synthesis Protocols: Refining green synthesis of copper and silver nanoparticle techniques to target precise monitoring over nanoparticle size, structure, and composition. This may involve experimenting with combinations of plant extracts or optimizing reaction conditions for higher yield and reproducibility.

Mechanistic Insights: Investigating the underlying mechanisms of nanoparticle formation, including the role of specific phytochemicals in reduction and stabilization, to develop more efficient synthesis strategies.

Scalability and Industrial Applications: Addressing challenges related to scaling up green synthesis methods for industrial production, including cost-efficiency, quality control, and consistency.

Advanced Functionalization: Exploring methods to functionalize green-synthesized nanoparticles with biomolecules or synthetic compounds to broaden their applications, particularly in targeted drug release and biosensing.

Combination Therapies: Studying the enhanced combined  effects of NPs with conventional therapies, such as antibiotics or anticancer drugs, to enhance treatment efficacy.

Ecological  Recovery : Expanding the use of green-synthesized NPs for cleaning up pollutants, including bioaccumulate  metals and organic contaminants, in water and soil.

Nanosensors &Diagnostics: Developing highly sensitive and specific diagnostic tools and environmental sensors using green-synthesized nanoparticles for early disease detection and monitoring.

Artificial Intelligence Integration: Leveraging AI and machine learning to optimize nanoparticle design and synthesis, accelerating the discovery of materials with enhanced properties.

Standardization and Regulation: Establishing clear guidelines and regulatory frameworks for the properties , testing, and application of biosynthesized NPs  to ensure safety and consistency.

Long-term Toxicity Studies: Conducting expensive research studies on the long-period impacts of Nano particle  on human along with ecosystems to promote responsible development.

Biodegradable Nanoparticles: Developing biodegradable nanoparticles through green synthesis to address environmental concerns and enhance their suitability for biomedical applications.

Agricultural Applications: Exploring the uses  of biosynthesized NPs in Farming , such as nanoscale fertilizers and nano formulated pesticide , to promote sustainable farming practices and improve food security.

Conclusion

Bio-nanotechnology, particularly the green synthesis of silver and copper nanoparticles, represents a viable and increasingly explored approach for addressing challenges across biomedical and environmental applications. The analysis presented in this review highlights the potential of Ag and Cu nanoparticles in areas such as antimicrobial activity, drug delivery, wound healing, and water purification, while emphasizing advantages associated with green synthesis, including improved biocompatibility, reduced use of hazardous chemicals, and cost-effectiveness. Advanced characterization techniques have played an important role in understanding the physicochemical properties of these nanoparticles, including size, morphology, surface chemistry, and stability. Such insights are essential for optimizing synthesis protocols and tailoring nanoparticles for specific applications. Green-synthesized Ag and Cu nanoparticles show promising antimicrobial properties, particularly against drug-resistant microorganisms, and demonstrate applicability in healthcare and environmental remediation contexts.

At the same time, environmental and toxicological concerns related to nanoparticle exposure and long-term accumulation remain important considerations. Although green synthesis approaches may reduce some associated risks, further systematic studies are required to fully evaluate long-term safety, environmental fate, and biological interactions.

In summary, the biosynthesis of silver and copper nanoparticles using plant-based sources offers a sustainable alternative to conventional synthesis methods. Continued research focused on safety evaluation, standardized synthesis, and application-specific optimization will be essential for responsible development and practical implementation of green-synthesized nanoparticles.

Acknowledgement

The author would like to thank Arulmigu Kalasalingam College of Pharmacy.This review forms a part of the Ph.D. work of Thenmozhi A, carried out under The Tamil Nadu Dr. M.G.R. Medical University

Funding Sources

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Conflict of Interest

The author(s) do not have any conflict of interest.

Data Availability Statement

This statement does not apply to this article.

Ethics Statement

This research did not involve human participants, animal subjects, or any material that requires ethical approval.

Informed Consent Statement

This study did not involve human participants, and therefore, informed consent was not required.

Clinical Trial Registration

This research does not involve any clinical trials.

Permission to reproduce material from other sources

Not applicable.

Author Contributions

• Thenmozhi Annadurai: Methodology, Visualization, Supervision, Project Administration Writing – Review & Editing;
• N Venkateshan: Data Collection, Analysis;
• S R Senthilkumar: Review & Editing.

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Abbreviations