{"id":53664,"date":"2023-12-31T11:52:45","date_gmt":"2023-12-31T11:52:45","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/biomedpharmajournal.org\/?p=53664"},"modified":"2024-01-05T05:52:22","modified_gmt":"2024-01-05T05:52:22","slug":"south-african-medicinal-plants-used-in-the-treatment-of-human-bacterial-infections-an-updated-review","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/biomedpharmajournal.org\/staging\/vol16no4\/south-african-medicinal-plants-used-in-the-treatment-of-human-bacterial-infections-an-updated-review\/","title":{"rendered":"South African Medicinal Plants Used in the Treatment of Human Bacterial Infections: An updated Review"},"content":{"rendered":"\n

Introduction <\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Medicinal plants play an important role in the preservation of health and well-being of many people and animals across the globe 1-2<\/sup>. In the past, many people have relied on indigenous herbs with remedial actions for the prevention and treatment of infectious diseases 3<\/sup>. There is a growing amount of literature on the use of medicinal plants and their benefits, across the world including South Africa 4-5<\/sup>. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

According to ethnobotanical survey, South Africa has a strong history of traditional healing and anchors a rich biodiversity of more than 30 000 plant species 6-8<\/sup>. However, over 4000 species are recognised to have ethnobotanical importance, with more than 3000 plants used for medicinal purposes 9-10<\/sup>. Notably, more than 10% of the world\u2019s higher plant species of medicinal value grow in South Africa 7-8<\/sup>. Furthermore, most of these plant species are native species while a few are exotic species which were accidentally or deliberately introduced to South Africa over the years 11<\/sup>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The use of medicinal plants to treat vast diseases by inhabitants of\nSub-Saharan Africa is enormous so that the traditional medicine has been\nunderstood as part of African culture 12<\/sup>. According to researchers, medicinal\nplants have a myriad of diverse bioactive compounds with complex chemical\nprofiles that contributes to their massive usage in the treatment and\nprevention of many diseases 7, 13, 14<\/sup>.These diseases include,\nbut not limited to, asthma, diabetes, cancer, food borne diseases, nosocomial infections, mental and\ngynaecological problems, hypertension as well as tuberculosis 4, 15, 16<\/sup>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

However, the majority of the diseases are caused by organisms of\nbacterial origin including but not limited to Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Mycobacterium tuberculosis,\nbacillus <\/em>spp., Klebsiella<\/em> spp., Streptococcus<\/em> spp. and Pseudomonas\n<\/em>aeruginosa 15, 17<\/sup>. Many scientific investigators\nhave reported these bacterial pathogens of being resistant to a majority of the\nmainstream antibiotics design to kill them including those of last resort such\nas carbapenems, colistin, and tigecycline 18-20<\/sup>. Due to this phenomenon,\nthe frail are left with no other choice but to explore medicinal herbs as an\nalternative means to regain health 21-23<\/sup>. 16<\/sup>, have\nreported the potential incorporation of traditional medicine with the Western counterparts\nas part of its primary healthcare approach in South Africa.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Scientific studies depicted that plants growing in South Africa have\nbeen used to remedy many bacterial infections including but not limited to\ndiarrhoea, dysentery, skin and wound diseases, tuberculosis and pneumonia 17,\n24-26<\/sup>.  Also, 10<\/sup>\nrecounts the historical systematic use of medicinal plants in South Africa to\ntreat bacterial diseases and the progress that has been made which could lead\nto future exploration of these plants as new pharmaceuticals. Today, South Africa has a good documented record of\nmedicinal plant use to cure infectious diseases including those of bacterial\norigin 17<\/sup>.  Therefore, the aim\nof the study was to report on South African medicinal plant used in the\ntreatment of human bacterial infections. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Materials and methods <\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The search was carried out using key\nelectronic scientific databases including PubMed, Google Scholar, SpringerLink,\nProQuest, Science Direct, Elsevier, BioMed Central. Other sources of literature\nincluded scientific articles, book chapters, dissertations, theses and websites.  The key words such as \u201cmedicinal plants\u201d,\n\u201cantioxidants\u201d, \u201cbacterial infections\u201d, \u201ctraditional medicines\u201d, \u201cbioactive\ncompounds\u201d, and \u201cSouth Africa\u201d, were used to get the trimmed searches.  <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Parts of medicinal plants frequently used<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

It has been reported that the herbal preparations used during various\ntreatments comes either from whole plant or from parts including the leaves,\nflowers, tubers, stems, roots, fruits and barks 27-28 <\/sup>. However, the\nparts of plants reported as frequently used in traditional medicine practices\nin South Africa includes but not limited to the ones listed below:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bark<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Tree barks are made of a hard outer layer of actively dividing living\ncells which functions to transport nutrients, acts as a physical barrier and\nprotects the plant 29-30<\/sup>. Some researchers have reported that the\nbarks of most medicinal plants contain substantial amounts of bioactive substances\nnecessary to prevent and cure a variety of infections 31-32<\/sup>.\nAccording to 33<\/sup>, more than 30% of the woody plant bark used in the\nLimpopo province in South Africa have been reported to have high medicinal\nvalues. In South Africa, more than one third of the plant materials used in\ntraditional medicine comes from the bark of plants 32, 34<\/sup>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Leaf <\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The leaf of a plant is an important structure as it manufactures food\nthat the plant needs for its growth and survival through the process of\nphotosynthesis 35<\/sup>. The leaf is also fused with green substances\nknown as chlorophyll which absorbs sunlight that aids in the conversion of\ncarbon dioxide and water to glucose needed for plant\u2019s growth 35<\/sup>.\nHowever, some of the leaves used during traditional medicine practices are\nknown to contain bioactive substances \nincluding the leaves of Burkea Africana,<\/em> Lippia javanica <\/em>and <\/em>Leucaena leucocephala <\/em>36-38<\/sup>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Root <\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Plants roots help to anchor the plant to a surface by creating\nresistance and helps to transport substances necessary for its growth from the\nsoil to the rest of the plant 39<\/sup>. In traditional medicine, the\napplication of plant roots either independently or in combination with other\nplant parts is common as reported by 40-41<\/sup>. Research has\ndemonstrated that most roots of plants used in traditional medicine contains\nimportant  phytochemicals 42-43<\/sup>.\nSome of the plants that have their roots used as medicine includes but not\nlimited to devil\u2019s claw root, stinging nettle root and ginseng 42, 44<\/sup>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

According to 41<\/sup>, <\/a>most traditional\nhealers are convinced that the roots and bulbs of plants or any part hidden\nbeneath the earth contains higher healing powers than any other plant part. In\nline with this, a research by 40<\/sup> found out that the roots and other\nunder-ground parts of plants holds elevated concentrations of plant natural\nsubstances. According to an ethnobotanical survey conducted by 27-28<\/sup>,\nthe roots and barks are the most used and preferred over other parts by the\nindigenous people. Furthermore\n45<\/sup>,  was in agreement with\nthis and reported on similar findings that the bark and roots are the most\nfavoured parts of plants used by the Tsonga people of Mpumalanga province in\nSouth Africa, as illustrated in Figure 1.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n
\"\"<\/td>\n\n

Figure 1: Percentage of the parts of plants frequently used for preparing traditional medicines in South Africa. Adapted from Lall et al<\/em>., (2018).<\/strong><\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

Click here to view Figure<\/a><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n\n\n

 Antimicrobial ethno-medicinal plants used in South Africa<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

According to World Health Organisation, more than 60% of people depend on traditional medicine for the purpose of preventing and treating diseases 46<\/sup>. This includes 80% of the populations from underdeveloped and developing countries including South Africa 45, 47<\/sup>. The traditional application of medicinal plants as medicine is one of the key sources of health care in South Africa 16<\/sup>. Additionally, South Africa is reputable for traditional healing using medicinal plants and it is estimated that over 27 million people in both townships and the rural communities prefer and rely on traditional medicine for their primary health care 9, 45, 48<\/sup>. Of this, 16<\/sup> reports that 72% of the population are the Black Africans including the Zulus, the Xhosa, the Bapedi, the Venda people,  the Northern and the Southern Sotho people make use of traditional herbal medicine the most. A recent survey conducted by 16<\/sup>, on the use of natural plant products to treat human diseases in the Limpopo province of South Africa had similar findings. However, the remainder of the population including the Whites, mixed race, Indians and Chinese also use traditional medicine but at a lesser extent 49<\/sup>. Numerous ethnobotanical surveys done in South Africa revealed that a significant amount of plant species are used as medicine especially in regions including KwaZulu-Natal and Limpopo to relieve symptoms of bacterial, fungal and viral infections as shown in Table 2 5, 45, 50<\/sup>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

In addition, 27<\/sup> reported on parts from one\nplant species frequently used during the preparation of natural product\nmedicine than a mixture of species. However, it is logical to speculate that harvesting\nand using parts from one plant species especially the roots as medicine is not\nsustainable as the plant survival is endangered. This practice of\noverharvesting and exploitation can kill the plant resulting to devastating consequences\nincluding species extinction 51<\/sup>. This is particularly true for slow-growing and protected species 50<\/sup>.  <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Table 1 below shows the various plant species used to treat human ailments, parts, methods of preparation, parts of the plants that are commonly used, traditional therapeutic uses, and the distribution of plant in South Africa. <\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n
\"\"<\/td>\nTable 1: Plants commonly used for medicinal purposes in South Africa to treat human ailments<\/strong>.

<\/p>\n

Click here to view Table<\/a><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n\n\n

Bacterial diseases\ntreated with indigenous medicinal plants in South Africa<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

It is not new that people use medicinal herbs\nto treat common health problems 16, 58, 92<\/sup>. Previously published ethnobotanical\nreports elucidates that some of the illnesses and\/ infections commonly prevented or treated with\nlocal medicinal plants in South Africa includes, but not limited to, oral\ninfections, heart and lung problems, sexually transmitted infections (STIs),\ndiabetes mellitus, headaches, infertility, erectile disorder, skin problems, gastrointestinal infections including diarrhoea, Human Immunodeficiency\nVirus \/ Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (HIV\/AIDS) and related infections, wounds,\ncancer, cardiovascular diseases,\nrespiratory ailments including coughs and tuberculosis (TB), just to name a few\n12, 16, 25, 28, 32,57-58<\/sup>.  <\/p>\n\n\n\n

According to past and resent research, South Africa has an elevated\nlevel of infectious diseases burden notably from bacterial origin 5, 93<\/sup>;\neven though viral, protozoal and helminthic, as well as yeast infectious agents\nhave also been reported 17, 94-96<\/sup>. This is in consistence with the\nresearch by 93, 95, 95<\/sup>, who reports that a larger proportion of the\ndeaths in South Africa results from \ninfectious diseases including tuberculosis, sexually transmitted\ninfections (STIs) and diarrhoea. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Tuberculosis<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The bacterium, Mycobacterium\ntuberculosis<\/em> (TB) is the causative pathogen for\ntuberculosis which is problematic to the medical community and causes more than\n1.5 million deaths in a year worldwide 89, 97<\/sup>. In South Africa\nit is estimated that 28% of TB infection burden is due to HIV it its\npopulation, thus ranking fourth largest globally 98<\/sup>. According to a\nreview by 94<\/sup>, in the year 2013 alone South Africa recorded 860 TB\ncases per 100 000 people. It is worth noting that tuberculosis has been\nreported as the leading cause of death in South Africa 5, 65, 95<\/sup>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

A substantial number of studies have reported TB resistance to many pharmaceutical\nmedications giving rise to multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB) and extensively\ndrug-resistant TB (XDR-TB) 95, 99-100<\/sup>. However, plant natural\nmaterial has been widely applied to treat TB infections due to the presence of its\nchemical constituents including alkaloids, glycosides, tannins, phenolics, xanthones, quinones, sterols\nand triterpenoids  30, 97, 101<\/sup>.\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Bapedi traditional healers in the Limpopo\nprovince use a variety of plants including Psiadia punctulata<\/em> (DC.),\nVatke and Xerophyta retinervis<\/em>\nBaker to cure TB and its associated secondary infections 5<\/sup>. The\nJongilanga local community in Mpumalanga also apply medicinal plants to remedy\nconditions of cancer, TB and acne 45<\/sup>. According to a research by 101<\/sup>,\nsome herbs that are used by the inhabitants of the Free State Province to treat\nTB are active at very smaller concentrations and these includes  Dicoma anomala<\/em> (0.195 \u2013 6.25 mg\/ml),\nHermannia depressa<\/em> (0.78 \u2013 1.56 mg\/ml), Senecio harveianus <\/em>(0.195 \u2013\n0.39 mg\/ml) and <\/em>Lotononis lanceolate <\/em>(0.195 – 0.65 mg\/ml). <\/p>\n\n\n\n

 Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Venereal diseases also called sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are mostly caused by bacterial pathogens including Treponema pallidum<\/em> which causes syphilis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae<\/em> which causes gonorrhoea and Chlamydia trachomatis<\/em> which causes chlamydia infections 102-104<\/sup>. However viral and parasitic pathogens have been reported to also cause STIs 76, 104<\/sup>. It is estimated that in a year, in South Africa more than 11 million STI infections are recorded in the health registers 103, 105<\/sup>.  The misconceptions and stigma attached to STIs in South Africa cause most of the people to favour traditional homemade remedies using medicinal plants over hospitals and local clinics visits 105<\/sup>. Apart from that, undesirable effects as well as resistance to most STI orthodox medications have been reported 103<\/sup>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Many ethnobotanical surveys in South Africa have reported that most indigents apply a vast number of medicinal plants for the treatment of STIs including but not limited to Acacia karroo, Bidens pilosa, Carica papaya, Diospyros mespiliformis, Ficus abutilifolia, Rhoicissus tridentata <\/em>subsp. cuneifolia, Ximenia caffra, Vachellia karroo,<\/em> Trichilia dregeana<\/em>, Terminalia sericea Cambess, Typha capensis Rohrb<\/em> andZiziphus mucronata<\/em> Wild. subsp. mucronata<\/em> 28, 50, 68, 103-104<\/sup>. According to a research conducted by 104<\/sup>, the root extracts of Acacia karroo<\/em> and Rhoicissus tridentata <\/em>subsp. cuneifolia<\/em> plantswere active against Neisseria gonorrhoeae<\/em> with MIC value of 0.8 mg\/ml and 0.4 mg\/ml respectively. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Similarly, the aqueous extracts of Bidens Pilosa<\/em> leaf (mean MIC 83.2 mg\/ml) and Ximenia caffra<\/em> root (mean MIC 62.1 mg\/ml) showed inhibitory activity against Neisseria gonorrhoeae<\/em> pathogen 104<\/sup>. Also, Trichilia dregeana<\/em> produces a mean MIC of 2.0 mg\/ml against Treponema pallidum<\/em> 104<\/sup>. A review by 57, 105<\/sup>, agrees with this and reports on similar findings on the use of medicinal plants to treat STIs in South Africa.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Diarrhoea <\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

According to 106<\/sup>,\ndiarrhoea is a common symptom that is usually related with the disorders of the\ngastrointestinal tract and is typically characterised by increased in the\nregularity of bowel movement associated with watery stools. Infectious\ndiarrhoea other gastrointestinal\nillnesses are frequently triggered by resistant strains of medically\nimportant bacteria including B. cereus<\/em>, E. coli, S. aureus<\/em>, Salmonella\ntyphimurium <\/em>(S. typhimurium<\/em>), Proteus vulgaris<\/em> (P. vulgaris),\nand Shigella spp.,  107-108<\/sup>. Similarly,\nviral as well as parasitic diarrhoea has been reported 107<\/sup>.\n<\/a>Diarrhoea has been reported as the major cause of death in low and middle\nincome countries with over 6.9% death rate reported 108-109<\/sup>. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

In South Africa, the indigents usually apply various medicinal plants to remedy gastrointestinal diseases and conditions associated with diarrhoea 12, 108<\/sup>. The pomegranate plant (Punica granatum<\/em>), has been widely used to alleviate many health conditions including diarrhoea due to its rich phytochemical constituents such as flavonoids, alkaloids, saponins, tannins, phenols and anthocyanins 109-110<\/sup>. According to 132<\/sup>, the fruit peel extract of Punica granatum<\/em> inhibits the growth of MRSA with zones of inhibition ranging from 22.0 mm to 11.3 mm. Similar research by  112<\/sup> agrees with this and adds that the juice of pomegranate fruit shows inhibitory properties against B. cereus<\/em>, E. coli, <\/em>and S. aureus<\/em> and produces 26.0 mm, 20.0 mm and 26.0 mm as diameter of inhibition respectively. Notwithstanding, the bark extract of Sclerocarya birrea<\/em> shows activity against diarrhoeal pathogens with low MIC values including S. typhimurium<\/em> (0.20 mg\/ml), B. cereus<\/em> (0.29 mg\/ml), S. aureus<\/em> (0.35 mg\/ml), P. vulgaris<\/em> (0.75 mg\/ml) and E. coli<\/em> (0.95 mg\/ml) 108<\/sup>. On the other hand, the extract from the leaf of  Psidium guajava<\/em> (P. guajava<\/em>) shows killing properties against B. cereus<\/em>, S. typhimurium<\/em> and S. aureus<\/em> with MIC values of 0.34, 0.65 and 0.93 mg\/ml respectively 108<\/sup>. Additionally,  25<\/sup> had similar findings and reports on the MIC values of various medicinal plants in South Africa against diarrhoeal entero-pathogens including Aloe arborescence<\/em> against S. aureus<\/em> (0.018 mg\/ml), Eucomis comosa<\/em> against Enterococcus faecalis<\/em> (0.078 mg\/ml) and Acacia mearnsii<\/em> against S. typhimurium<\/em> (0.039 mg\/ml). This is consistent with the research conducted by 113<\/sup> on the use of indigenous herbal plants in South Africa to treat diarrhoea caused by enteropathogenic bacterial organisms. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

In a majority of instances, reports showed that one plant can be useful in curing multiple conditions and\/ diseases (mono-therapy), for example garlic scientifically known as Allium sativum, <\/em>is used to treat throat infections, TB, asthma, stomach diseases 60, 62<\/sup>. Similarly, the cape aloe (Aloe ferox<\/em>) is used in KwaZulu-Natal to remedy burns, sunburn, acne, insect bites, skin irritation, toothaches, stomach problems, sinusitis 7, 10<\/sup>.<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Even\nthough indigenous plants have proven very useful to mankind, however\nover-exploitation of these plants threatened some species to disappear or near\ndisappear on earth 34<\/sup>. Due to this, the government of South Africa\nhas introduced regulations and thus label some plants as endangered, and\/or\nprotected species including Curtisia dentata<\/em> commonly called \u201cassegai\u201d\nin Afrikaans, Warburgia salutaris<\/em> known as pepper-bark tree, and Zanthoxylum\ncapense<\/em> \u2013 a protected tree 34<\/sup>. It is interesting to note that,\nwhile some of the plants used as medicine are largely distributed in the wild\nor grown in gardens at home, a majority are indigenous 37<\/sup>. Of\nthis, a smaller proportion are exotic and\/ endemic in some parts in South\nAfrica including Limpopo, Mpumalanga and KwaZulu Natal provinces 11<\/sup>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Pathogenic bacterial infections<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Infectious diseases are major cause of mortality and disability, and\nremain the second leading cause of death across the globe 3, 5, 114-115<\/sup>. This phenomenon is further exacerbated by the emergence of both old\nfamiliar and new unrecognised infectious disease pandemics 116-118<\/sup>.\nMicrobial infectious diseases cause more than 50% of all the deaths that occur\nin the underdeveloped nations particularly African countries 3, 21, 100<\/sup>. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

There is a rising amount of information to indicate that most of the\ndiseases which are problematic to human health are said to be infectious and\nare mostly caused by pathogenic microorganisms including bacteria, viruses,\nparasites and fungi 95,\n115, 119-120<\/sup>. It is of importance to note that infectious diseases occurring as a\nresult of bacterial infections are reported to be the number one killer disease\nthan any other category of disease globally 95, 114<\/sup>. These bacterial\ninfections accounts for 43% mortality rate recorded in the underdeveloped\ncountries whilst only 1% of the mortality rate is recorded in the developed countries\n121<\/sup>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The high level of infectious disease burden in a population with\nminimal health resources, comes with the associated ramifications including death.\nAccording to Stats 95<\/sup>, recorded deaths in South Africa for the\nperiod between 2014-2017 caused by infectious and parasitic diseases was\n78 562 amounting to 17.2% demises.  A\nsubstantial amount of health-care costs in South Africa has also been incurred\nas a result of infectious diseases 25<\/sup>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Plants as alternative source of antimicrobials<\/strong><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Plants are generally known to be the biggest stores\nof naturally occurring biochemical compounds and are capable of manufacturing\ndiverse natural chemical constituents including toxins and\/ pheromones as a\nform of defence mechanism against other organisms or for pollination\nrespectively 3, 122-123<\/sup>. These chemical substances are of course not\nplacebo but are fused with low molecular weight potent bioactive constituents\nalso known as secondary metabolites 124-125<\/sup>. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

As early as the 1850s, plants\u2019 secondary\nmetabolites have received intense investigation 125-126<\/sup>. Currently,\nmore than 12,000 bioactive compounds from plants have been isolated and are\nfurther classified based either on their chemical composition and structure,\ntheir biosynthetic origin or their solubility 124, 127<\/sup>. Due to this,\nthe compounds were further segregated as alkaloids, terpenoids, phenolics, saponins,\nlipids and carbohydrates 128-129<\/sup>. These chemicals have promising\ntherapeutic effects on which human beings rely on 14<\/sup>. The presence\nof these phytochemical constituents in plants perhaps explains their countless\napplications in traditional medicine 129-130<\/sup>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The inhibitory properties of South African medicinal plants against bacterial pathogens<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

After unsuccessful attempts to eliminate pathogens with conventional\nmedicines due to drug resistance, some plant secondary metabolites were\nconsidered. Numerous scientific studies have revealed significant antibacterial\nactivities of some plants against multidrug-resistant pathogens of bacterial\norigin 128, 130-131<\/sup> (Table 2).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

According to 132<\/sup>; organic and aqueous extracts of Vernonia amygdalina<\/em> shows antibacterial effect against Pseudomonas aeruginosa<\/em>, Klebsiella<\/em> spp., Streptococcus<\/em> spp., Bacillus cereus<\/em>, Bacillus pumilus<\/em>, Bacillus subtilis<\/em>, Enterobacter cloacaem<\/em>, E. coli<\/em> and Staphylococcus aureus<\/em>. In a research conducted by 25<\/sup>, plant extracts from Psidium guajava,<\/em>  Eucomis autumnalis<\/em> and Cyathula uncinulata<\/em> showed promising antibacterial effect against S. aureus<\/em> with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values ranging from 0.018 mg\/ml to 2.5 mg\/ml. Correspondingly, 101<\/sup> reported  that the extracts from the leaves of Eucomis autumnalis<\/em> was active against Bacillus pumilus,<\/em> Escherichia coli<\/em> and Staphylococcus aureus<\/em>  at a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 0.098 mg\/ml, 0.130 mg\/ml and 0.098 mg\/ml respectively. This is in consistence with the research conducted by 105<\/sup>, in which the Bolusanthus speciosus<\/em> bark used by the Veda indigents to treat venereal diseases showed good inhibitory activity against E. coli<\/em> and S. aureus<\/em> with ranges of MIC values between 0.012 mg\/ml and 0.098 mg\/ml. This validates the idea that plants could be used as alternative source of antibiotics.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Table 2: South African medicinal plants with promising antimicrobial activity against a variety of susceptible and resistant pathogenic strains<\/strong>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
\n

Scientific name of Plant<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Common name of plant<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Type of extract<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Sensitive pathogen<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Reported biological ingredients<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

References <\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n

\n

Allium sativum<\/em><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Garlic<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Aqueous, ethanol and chloroform extracts<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

MDR-TB and XDR-TB, Escherichia coli<\/em>, Salmonella typhi<\/em>, Staphylococcus aureus<\/em>, Streptococcus agalactiae<\/em>, Klebsiella pneumoniae<\/em> , Proteus mirabilis<\/em>, Bacillus subtilis,<\/em> Helicobacter pylori<\/em><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Allicin which is an alkaloid<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

133-134<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Combretum imberbe<\/em><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Leadwood<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Acetone extract.<\/p>\n

Crude and organic extracts<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Candida albicans <\/em> Cryptococcus  neoformans<\/em>,  Schistosoma haematobium, Staphylococcus aureus, <\/em><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Triterpenoids including glycosidic derivatives of hydroxyimberbic acid, imberbic acid, glycosides based on imberbic acid<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

135-137<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Combretum molle<\/em><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Velvet bush willows<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Crude and organic extracts<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Bacillus cereus,<\/em><\/p>\n

Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa<\/em><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Flavonoids<\/p>\n

Steroids<\/p>\n

Tannins<\/p>\n

Triterpenoids<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

135, 138-139<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Euclea divinorum <\/em><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Magic quarry<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Root-bark organic and aqueous extract<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus sanguinis,<\/em><\/p>\n

Lactobacillus acidophilu<\/em><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Alkaloids<\/p>\n

Saponins<\/p>\n

Tannins<\/p>\n

Amino acids<\/p>\n

Flavonoids<\/p>\n

Phenols,<\/p>\n

Triterpenoids<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

139-140 <\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Hypericum perforatum <\/em>L.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

St. John\u2019s Wort<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Organic extract<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Staphylococcus aureus,<\/em><\/p>\n

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus,<\/em> Helicobacter pylori <\/em><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Hyperforin<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

141<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Punica granatum<\/em><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Pomegranate<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Peel, fruit skin and whole fruit-hot water and organic extract<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Staphylococcus aureus Escherichia coli<\/em><\/p>\n

Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Salmonella typhimurium, Bacillus Subtilis, Yersinia enterocolitica.<\/em><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Polyphenols including ellagic tannins, ellagic acid, and gallic acid.<\/p>\n

Alkaloid,<\/p>\n

Flavonoid, Glycoside,<\/p>\n

Phenol, Condensed and hydrolysable tannins<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

142-144<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Pelargonium sidoides DC.<\/em><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Rose-scented Pelargonium OR<\/p>\n

Cape Pelargonium<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Root and leaf ethanolic and methanolic extracts<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Bacillus subtilis,<\/em><\/p>\n

Escherichia coli, Helicobacter pylori,  Staphylococcus aureus, <\/em><\/p>\n

Streptococcus pneumoniae, <\/em><\/p>\n

Streptococcus epidermis, Mycobacterium tuberculosis,  Mycobacterium smegmatis<\/em><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Coumarins, Flavonoids,<\/p>\n

Gallic acid, Hydroxycinnamic acid, Proanthocyanins,<\/p>\n

Phenolic acids including gallic acid<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

7, 145<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Schrebera alata<\/em><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Wild Jasmine<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Organic extract<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

MRSA, Candida albicans<\/em>, Multidrug-resistant, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli <\/em><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Flavonoids, Sterols, Alkaloids, Tannins, Quinones, Terpenoids, Saponins<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

146-147<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Terminalia sericea<\/em><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Silver clutter-leaf.<\/p>\n

Silver terminalia<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Organic root and leaf extracts<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Helicobacter pylori,  Human immunodeficiency virus,<\/em><\/p>\n

Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mycobacterium smegmatis,<\/em><\/p>\n

Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus<\/em><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Alkaloids, Flavonoids, Tannins, Saponins,<\/p>\n

Phenolic acids,<\/p>\n

Lignans,<\/p>\n

Steroids,<\/p>\n

Glycosides<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

137, 148<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Vernonia amygdalina<\/em><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Bitter leaf<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Organic and aqueous extracts<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Escherichia coli,<\/em> Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus<\/em><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Vernolide, Vernodalol, Vernodalin,<\/p>\n

Vernodalinol,<\/p>\n

Vernomygdin, hydrxyvernolide<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

132<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Ximenia caffra<\/em><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Sour-plum<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Leaf, root- organic and aqueous extract<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Escherichia coli<\/em><\/p>\n

Bacillus subtilis<\/em><\/p>\n

Staphylococcus aureus<\/em><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Flavonoids Tannins<\/p>\n

Polyphenols including gallic acid, catechin, quercetin and kaempferol<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

105, 149-150<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Zingiber officinale <\/em>Roscoe<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Ginger<\/em><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Organic and aqueous extracts<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Acinetobacter baumannii, Bacillus subtilis,<\/em><\/p>\n

Bacillus cerus,  <\/em><\/p>\n

Escherichia coli, <\/em>Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus,<\/em><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Terpene including zingiberene, Phenols including gingerol, paradols, and shogaol<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

151-152<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

 <\/p>\n\n\n

Conclusion<\/strong><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The reviewed publications are focussed on\nbiological activities, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of South\nAfrican plants used to treat human bacterial infections.  Yet additional data and published clinical trials\nare still needed to confirm therapeutic properties of the researched medicinal\nplants.  The practice of traditional medicine through\nthe application of plant natural product still plays a vital role in fulfilling\nthe rudimentary health care needs of the people of South Africa. Acacia karroo,\nBidens pilosa, Diospyros mespiliformis <\/em>and Ximenia caffra<\/em> were the commonly applied herbs for the\ntreatment of venereal diseases. On the other hand, diarrhoea and other stomach\nrelated ailments caused by pathogenic bacteria were remedied with Allium sativum,\nEucomis comosa, Psidium guajava, Punica granatum <\/em>and Aloe <\/em>spp.<\/em>\nMoreover, Aloe barbadensis, Cassia abbreviata, Helichrysum caespititium, Hypoxis\ncolchicifolia and Sutherlandia frutescens <\/em>were mostly used by HIV\npositive patients to alleviate opportunistic infections including TB, diarrhoea\nand skin infections. The leaves, bark\nand root were frequently used plant parts while the preferred methods of\npreparation were decoction and infusion. This study demonstrates the usefulness\nof plant natural product as medicine to prevent and treat human pathogenic\ninfections caused by resistant bacteria in South Africa. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Acknowledgements<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The authors would like to thank the staff members of the Department of\nLife and Consumer Sciences for their support in writing this paper.   <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Conflict of interest<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The authors declare no conflict of interest.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

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