{"id":52173,"date":"2023-09-30T11:28:16","date_gmt":"2023-09-30T11:28:16","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/biomedpharmajournal.org\/?p=52173"},"modified":"2023-10-07T08:53:44","modified_gmt":"2023-10-07T08:53:44","slug":"antioxidant-antibacterial-and-cytotoxic-activities-of-artemisia-judaica-ruta-graveolens-and-suaeda-monoica-from-saudi-arabia","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/biomedpharmajournal.org\/staging\/vol16no3\/antioxidant-antibacterial-and-cytotoxic-activities-of-artemisia-judaica-ruta-graveolens-and-suaeda-monoica-from-saudi-arabia\/","title":{"rendered":"Antioxidant, Antibacterial and Cytotoxic Activities of Artemisia judaica, Ruta graveolens and Suaeda monoica from Saudi Arabia"},"content":{"rendered":"\n

Introduction<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

During the last decades, several researchers reported\nthe effectiveness of Plants\u2019 bioactive substances to fight communicable and non-communicable\ndiseases1<\/sup>, warranting their further exploitation as sources of new drugs2<\/sup>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Jazan, a coastal region on the Red Sea, southwestern area of Saudi\nArabia; has a rich flora used in the local folk medicine, amongst\nArtemisia judaica (<\/em>Asteraceae), Ruta graveolens <\/em>(Rutaceae), and Suaeda\nmonoica<\/em> (Chenopodiaceae)3<\/sup>. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

According to previous studies, Artemisia species are\nwidely spread and frequently used in traditional medicine to reduce phlegm, relieve\ncough, stop and minimize pain, induce sweat dieresis, and activate blood\ncirculation4\u20135<\/sup>. Ruta\ngraveolens<\/em> has various properties; antioxidant, antiepileptic,\nanti-pyretic, anti-cancer, anti-microbial (including fungal, bacterial and\nparasitic), as well as, diuretic, purgative, hepatoprotective, and hypotensive6<\/sup>.\nBesides, it is a toxin antidote and an insect repellent. Suaeda monoica<\/em> treat sore throat, microbial infections, rheumatoid\narthritis, asthma, snake bites, skin disease, ulceration, and toxic hepatitis1<\/sup>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

This current study aims to analyze the chemical composition of Artemisia judaica<\/em>, Ruta graveolens,<\/em> and Suaeda\nmonoica<\/em> methanol extracts and investigate their antioxidant, antibacterial,\nand cytotoxic activities. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Materials and Methods<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Chemicals, bacteria, and cell lines<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Chemicals, MCF-7 cell line, and bacteria strains were provided from Sigma\nAldrich, Germany, American Type Culture Collection and theCentre of Biotechnology of Sfax, Tunisia,<\/em> and, respectively.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Plant material and extract preparation\n<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Dried collected plants were grinded. Powdered matter (500 g) was\nextracted by continuous mixing in 1 L methanol (95%) for 72 h at room\ntemperature with occasional shaking. Finally, methanol of the filtrate was\nevaporated and methanol extracts residues were stored at 4\u00b0C.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Phytochemical screening <\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

To carry out the phytochemical screening, aqueous solutions of different\nextracts were prepared as follows: In 10 ml distilled water, 100 mg of each\nextract was dissolved using a laboratory sonicator (30 min at 37\u00b0C).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Total phenolic contents <\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Folin\u2013Ciocalteu method was usedto measure the total\nphenolic contents of the different extracts7<\/sup>. Briefly, 2.5 ml of 10%\nFolin\u2013Ciocalteu reagent (v\/v) and 2.0 ml of 7.5% Na2<\/sub>CO3<\/sub>\nwas mixed with 0.5 ml of each plant aqueous solution. Gallic acid was used as a\nstandard phenol in this assay. After 40 min incubation at 45\u00b0C period, the\nmixture absorbance was measured at 765 nm. Unless otherwise stated, all tests\nof the analysis were performed in triplicates. Total phenolic contents were\nexpressed as gallic acid equivalents (eq GA mg\/g dry weight of the different\nextracts). <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Total flavonoid contents <\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Total flavonoid contents of the extracts were determined using the\nformation of the flavonoid\u2013aluminum complex procedure8<\/sup>. 1 ml\naluminum chloride solution (2%) was added to 1 ml of each aqueous sample.\nAbsorbance of the final mixture was measured at 430 nm after 15 min incubation\nat room temperature. Rutin was used to determine the standard curve. Results\nwere presented as rutin equivalents (mg RE\/g dry weight). <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Estimation of antioxidant property<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Free radical-scavenging activity\nassay<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

DPPH test was carried out to measure the free radical-scavenging activity9<\/sup>.\n1 ml of a 0.1 mM methanolic solution of DPPH were added to 1 ml of the aqueous\nsolutions (50\u2013300 \u00b5g\/ml). After 30 min incubation in darkness at 27\u00b0C, sample\nabsorbance was determined at 517 nm. The standard of this assay was the\nAscorbic acid.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Ferric reducing power test <\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Chu et al.<\/em> (2000) method was\nadopted to determine the Ferric reducing anti-oxidative power (FRAP) of the\ndifferent extracts10<\/sup>. A mixture of 2.5 ml of potassium phosphate\nbuffer (0.1 M, pH 6.6) and 2.5 ml of 1% (w\/v) potassium ferricyanide was\nprepared. Then, 1.0 ml from  varying\nconcentrations (50\u2013500 \u00b5g\/ml) of plant extract solution was added to this\nmixture, followed by incubation 20 min at 50\u00b0C. Next, 2.5 ml of trichloroacetic\nacid (10% [w\/v]). After that, 2.5 ml of water and 0.5 ml of FeCl3 (0.1% [w\/v])\nwere added to 2.5 ml of the reaction mixture. Incubation of this solution 30\nmin at 28\u00b0C the color developed and its absorbance at 700 nm was determined.\nStandards for this experiment were ascorbic acid and ranitidine.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Gas chromatography mass spectroscopy\n(GC-MS) analysis <\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A GC-MS analysis for the four methanol extracts were conducted to\nidentify the bioactive compounds11<\/sup>. The model of the GC-MS used\ndevice was QP 2010 Plus, Shimadzu, Tokyo, Japan. The used column was VF-5ms\nfused silica capillary, its length 30 mm, 0.25 mm ID, and 0.25 \ud835\udf07m df. Electron impact mode\nat 70eV was adopted to ionize samples\u2019 components. In that experiment, the\ncarrier gas used is helium (99.99%). The flow was 0.96 ml\/min and the injection\nvolume was 2.0 \u00b5I. Temperature was 250\u00b0C at the injector and 280\u00b0C at ion-source.\nTotal GC running time is 36 min. Retention time, retention indices, and mass\nspectra were adopted to identify the compounds. For the mass spectra, values\nwere fixed at a scan interval of 0.5 seconds and fragments from 40 m\/z\u2013450 m\/z.\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The spectrum of the known compound stored in the database of National\nInstitute of Standard and Technology (NIST) library were used as references to\nascertain the name, molecular weight, and structure of the components of the\nextracts. Mass spectra analysis was done using Software version 2.71. To\ncalculate the relative percentage amount of each compound, its average peak\narea was compared to the total area.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Cell line and cell cultures<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

To grow and maintain the cell line, RPMI-1640 medium (pH 7.4)\nsupplemented with FBS (10%), penicillin (100 U\/ml), and streptomycin (100\ng\/ml), was selected. Incubator \ntemperature was fixed at 37\u00b0C with 90% humidity and 5% CO2<\/sub>.\nThe CO2<\/sub> incubator was from New Brunswick Scientific. DMSO was used\nto dissolve the extracts used in this study (DMSO < 0.05% in media). Control\ncell cultures received only DMSO.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Cell viability assay<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

In vitro<\/em> cytotoxicitywas determined\nusing the 3-(4, 5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT)\nmicroculture tetrazolium viability assay12<\/sup>. Unless otherwise stated,\nsample analyses were carried out in triplicates. Briefly, various samples with\nvarious concentrations (highest was 200 \u00b5g\/ml) were incubated for 72 h at 37\u00b0C.\nUntreated cells and blank cell-free were used as controls. After the addition\nof 5mg\/ml MTT to each well, a second incubation for further 4 h after was done.\nFinally, to solubilize the formazan crystals100 \u00b5l of DMSO were added to each\nwell. The final mixture absorbance was read at 490 nm (BioTek microtiter plate\nreader, Winooski, VT, USA).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Cell proliferation inhibitory rate were calculated using the following formula: <\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"\"<\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Extracts cytotoxicity on the cancer cell lines\n(IC50<\/sub>) expressed the sample concentration that reduced the treated\ncells account by 50% with respect to control cells.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Antibacterial activities<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

In this study, DMSO was used to dissolve the different plant extracts, the initial concentration was 30 mg\/ml. Agar-well diffusion method was adopted to carry out the antibacterial activities, as previously presented13<\/sup>. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Onto the surface of agar plates, 106<\/sup> cfu\/ml for bacteria were\ninoculated (200 \u03bcl fresh cell suspension). Then, using a sterile Pasteur\npipettes, 6 mm diameter wells were banged in the inoculated agar medium. After\nthat, 100 \u03bcl of each extract solution (30 mg\/ml) were poured to these wells. To\nallow the diffusion of the extracts in the agar, plates were kept 4 h at 4\u00b0C.\nAfter 24 h incubation at 37\u00b0C, inhibition zone diameters (IZD) was performed to\nevaluate the antibacterial activity. In this assay, Gentamicin (150 \u03bcg\/ml) was\nused as positive control. The average values were taken from running the\nsamples in triplicates. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) is defined as the lowest\nconcentration that completely inhibits bacteria growth (microorganism). In this\nstudy, micro-well dilution method (125\u20132,5 mg\/ml) was conducted to determine\nextracts MIC values. Bacterium suspensions (106 CFU\/ml) were incubated, in\nplates, 24 h at 37\u00b0C. To determine extracts MIC values, 40 \u03bcl of MTT (0.5 mg\/ml\ndissolved in distilled water) were added to the wells, followed by an\nincubation 30 min at 37\u00b0C. In this experiment, red-purple color development\nindicated that the bacteria were biologically active. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Statistical analysis<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 22.0 software\n(SPSS Inc., IBM, Chicago, Illinois, USA) was used to perform the statistical\nanalysis study. Average value of the triplicates was calculated. Results are\nrepresented as means \u00b1 standard deviation (SD). Comparison between samples are\ncarried out using ANOVA test followed by a post hoc. p <\/em>value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Results and Discussion<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Worldwide and throughout the human history,\nmedicinal plants were a normative basis for the maintenance of good health14<\/sup>.\nThe used herbal formulations (crude extract, tincture, teas, poultices,\npowders, and others) differ according to the intended aim1<\/sup>. In order\nto understand their healthiness mechanism and to rationalize plants use,\nseveral researches investigated plants\u2019 secondary metabolites in depth during\nthe last decades. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Amongst these compounds, phenolic compounds \u2013 phenolic acids and\nflavonoids \u2013 have been of great interest in research 15\u201317<\/sup>.Scientific\ninvestigations proved that these natural phytochemicals have antioxidant, anti-microbial,\nand anticancer activities2, 18, 19<\/sup>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

This study is dealing with Artemisia\njudaica<\/em> (Asteraceae), Ruta graveolens<\/em>\n(Rutaceae), and Suaeda monoica<\/em>\n(Chenopodiaceae). Folk medicine in Saudi Arabia cited the use of these plants\nto treat different ailments1<\/sup>. \n<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Practitioners <\/em>used Artemisia judaica<\/em> to treat many disorders, such as\ngastro-intestinal disorders, poor eyesight, cardiovascular disease, risk of\natherosclerosis, skin disorders, cancer and arthritis 20\u201321<\/sup>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Ruta graveolens<\/em> has anti-inflammatory and\nimmune stimulant properties. It treats hypertension, cramps to hysteria, edema\nvisual impairment as well as malaria and sclerosis 22-23<\/sup>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Suaeda monoica<\/em> possesses a curative\naction for hepatitis and protects liver against\nparacetamol-induced injury24<\/sup>. Furthermore, this plant helps healing\nwounds25<\/sup>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Table 1 presents TPC and TFC of the different extracts. According to this\nstudy, RGME has the highest\nlevel of phenols and flavonoids compared to SMME and AJME. These amounts are\ndifferent compared to the results of other studies. Asgharian (Asgharian et\nal.,<\/em> 2020) reported different amounts of phenols and flavonoids within R.\ngraveolens hydroalcholic extract, TPC were 14.1 \u00b1 0.47 mg GAE\/g and TFC were\n15.8 \u00b1 0.19 mg rutin equivalent\/g26<\/sup>. Concerning Artemisia Judaica,<\/em> Hashem (Hashem et al., <\/em>2013) recorded TPC\n726.8 mg GAE\/g and TFC \n705.73 mg rutin equivalent\/ug fresh weight27<\/sup>. In addition,\nother studies proved that Suaeda monoica<\/em>\ncontains high amounts of phenols and flavonoids28\u201329<\/sup>. During\nexperiment conduction, several factors such as extraction conditions and used\nsolvent can lead to such variance. Allam \n(Allam  et al., <\/em>2019)\nsuggested that Methanol extract contains the greatest amount of phenolics and\nflavonoids in Artemisia Judaica<\/em>30<\/sup>. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Table 1: TPC and TFC are presented, respectively, as gallic acid equivalents (eq GA mg \/g dry weight of the different extracts) and rutin equivalents (eq R mg \/g dry weight of the different extracts) of Artemisia judaica<\/em> methanol extract (AJME), Ruta graveolens<\/em> methanol extract (RGME), Suaeda monoica <\/em>methanol extract (SMME). Three independent runs data are displayed as mean \u00b1 standard deviation (SD). <\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
\n<\/td>\n\n

TPC (\u00b5g G A\/mg dry plant)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

TFC (\u00b5g R\/mg dry plant)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

RGME<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

89,03\u00b13,6<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3,34\u00b10,9<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

AJME<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

51,39\u00b14,2<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2,41\u00b10,78<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

SMME<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

34,54\u00b12,75<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3,056\u00b10,61<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n\n\n

DPPH and FRAP tests were adopted to estimate the antioxidant activities\nof these extracts. The DPPH assay deals with the abilities in plants\u2019 methanol\nextracts to donate hydrogen to the DPPH radical, which leads to bleaching of\nthe DPPH solution. Figure1 presents\nchanges in the free radical scavenging abilities of methanol extracts of the\ndifferent plants based on their percent inhibition.<\/em> Results show that RGME has an important scavenging activity tha\nis similar to ascorbic acid. However, Artemisia\njudaica<\/em> methanol extract (AJME) and Suaeda\nmonoica <\/em>methanol extract (SMME) produced significantly lower scavenging\nactivities than ascorbic acid.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n
\"\"<\/td>\n\n

Figure 1: DPPH free radical scavenging activities of AJME, RGME, SMME, and ascorbic acid. Three independent runs results are displayed as mean \u00b1 standard deviation (SD).<\/strong><\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

Click here to view Figure<\/a><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n\n\n

One of the assays that has the ability to measure the total antioxidants\nlevels in plant is the FRAP assay, where samples with antioxidant compounds had\nthe ability to reduce Fe(III) in potassium ferricyanide to Fe(II) and thus to\nchange the final solution color; yellow to light green. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Figure 2 represents the ferric reducing antioxidant activities of\ndifferent extracts. Results show that activities of all extracts are\nsignificantly lower than the activity of ascorbic acid. However, SMME activity\nis significantly higher than ranitidine, RGME, and AJME activities. <\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n
\"\"<\/td>\n\n

Figure 2: Ferric Reducing Antioxidant power of AJME, RGME, SMME, ascorbic acid, and ranitidine.<\/strong><\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

Click here to view Figure<\/a><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n\n\n

In this study, the GC-MS analysis of the different extracts revealed the\noccurrence of a large number of compounds 196, 120, and 342 from AJME, RGME,\nand SMME, respectively. Compounds that have high similarity (\u226590%) with the GC\nlibrary are represented in tables 2, 3, and 4. The identified compounds are\npresented with their retention time (RT), similarity, percentage, and their\nreported biological activities.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

GC-MS analyses revealed that these extracts contain several components\nthat could be important in many fields: medicine, food industry, cosmetic\nindustry, and others. This richness justifies their antioxidant, antibacterial,\nand cytotoxic activities. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

These extracts are rich in phytosterols that have great interest in\nresearch due to their nutritional, biological, and medicinal activities,\nincluding anti-hypocholesterolemic, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, and\nanti-tumor. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

AJME contains 35 compounds with similarities higher than 90% with the GC\nlibrary (Table 2). Some of them have anti-microbial activities. Others are\nantioxidant, hepatoprotective, and immunomodulatory agents31\u201333<\/sup>.\nFurthermore, several compounds have insecticidal activities or fragrance compounds34<\/sup>.\nMoreover, artemisinin, an essential compound of this plant extract, treats\nmalaria according to many studies35<\/sup>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Table 2: Details of phytocompounds detected by GC-MS analysis of Artemisia judaica<\/em> methanol extract (AJME).<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
\n

 <\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Compound<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Retention time<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Percentage<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Similarity<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Biological activities<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

1<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Bicyclo[2.2.1]heptan-2-one, 1,7,7-trimethyl-, (1R)-<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.092<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.44<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

97<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

curing dental composites36<\/sup><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

2<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1,7-Octadiene-3,6-diol, 2,6-dimethyl-<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

6.11<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.01<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

90<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Fatty alcohol<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

3<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

alpha-Fenchyl acetate<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

6.26<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.22<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

97<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Fragrance Compounds<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

4<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Eugenol<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

6.903<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.03<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

90<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Immunomodulatory<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

5<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

DL-Proline, 5-oxo-, methyl ester<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

7.154<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.06<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

93<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Antibacterial and antifungal<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

6<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2-Propenoic acid, 3-phenyl-<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

7.536<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.08<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

91<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

hepatoprotective agents<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

7<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Davana ether<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

8.133<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.76<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

94<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

 hepatoprotective agents<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

8<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Dodecanoic acid (CAS)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

8.215<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.03<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

90<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Lauric Acid <\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

9<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1,6,10-Dodecatrien-3-ol, 3,7,11-trimethyl-, (E)-<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

8.568<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.22<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

95<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Anti-microbial potential<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

10<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Davanone<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

8.761<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.34<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

92<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

hepatoprotective agents<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

11<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Isopropyl dodecanoate<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

8.79<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.2<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

91<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

 <\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

12<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1,2-Benzenedicarboxylic acid, diethyl ester<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

8.878<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.17<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

95<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Antimicrobial37<\/sup><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

13<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2-Naphthalenemethanol, decahydro-.alpha<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

9.556<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.19<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

90<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

 <\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

14<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Mome Inositol<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

10.143<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.28<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

90<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

 <\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

15<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

 7<\/em>–Ethyl<\/em>–1<\/em>,4<\/em>-dimethylazulene.<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

10.172<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.09<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

94<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Chamazulene<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

16<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

11.2<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.46<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

94<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Insecticidal,<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

17<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

n-Hexadecanoic acid<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

11.486<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2.94<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

95<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Insecticidal<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

18<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Heptadecanoic acid<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

12.108<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.13<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

92<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Anti-cancer38<\/sup><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

19<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Cyclooctacosane<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

12.289<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.11<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

95<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

 <\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

20<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Octadecanoic acid<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

12.795<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.61<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

96<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

 <\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

21<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Matricarin<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

14.395<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.15<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

90<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Sedative<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

22<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Grossmisine<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

14.436<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.34<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

92<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Insect repellent39<\/sup><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

23<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Dihydroartemisinin, 10-O-(t-butyloxy)-<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

14.862<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.46<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

90<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

 <\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

24<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1-Heptacosanol<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

15.814<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.19<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

98<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

 <\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

25<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Heneicosane<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

16.386<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.02<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

90<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

 <\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

26<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

13-Docosenamide, (Z)-<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

16.518<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.09<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

94<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

 <\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

27<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2,6,10,14,18,22-Tetracosahexaene<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

16.58<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.09<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

95<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Antimicrobial37<\/sup><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

28<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

alpha.-Tocopherol-.beta.-D-mannoside<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

20.194<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.04<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

91<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Antimicrobial37<\/sup><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

29<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Stigmasterol<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

22.68<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.83<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

93<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Antimicrobial37<\/sup><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

30<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Obtusifoliol<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

23.476<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.15<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

94<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Anticancer :<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

31<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Stigmast-5-en-3-ol, (3.beta.)-<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

23.913<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.02<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

91<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

 <\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

32<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Artemetin<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

24.357<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.47<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

93<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Anti-edematogenic<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

33<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

9,19-Cyclolanost-23-ene-3,25-diol, (3.beta.,23E)-<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

25.312<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.06<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

91<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Pesticides37<\/sup><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

34<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Bicyclo[2.2.1]heptan-2-one, 1,7,7-trimethyl-, (1R)-<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.092<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.44<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

97<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

 <\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

35<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1,7-Octadiene-3,6-diol, 2,6-dimethyl-<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

6.11<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.01<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

90<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

 <\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

 <\/p>\n\n\n

RGME contains 22 compounds that have similarity with GC library higher\nthan 90% (Table 3). Some of them have neuroprotective, antioxidant, and anti-microbial\neffects40<\/sup>. Besides, Scopoletin is a pharmacologically active\ncoumarin derivative compound found in various plant Ruta<\/em> species. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Table 3: Details of phytocompounds detected by GC-MS analysis of Ruta graveolens<\/em> methanol extract (RGME). <\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
\n

 <\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Compound<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Retention time<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Percentage<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Similarity<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Biological activities<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

1<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

4H-Pyran-4-one, 2,3-dihydro-3,5-dihydroxy-6-methyl-<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.012<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.43<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

96<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Antioxidant41<\/sup><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

2<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1-Pyrrolidineethanamine<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.535<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.51<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

95<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

anti-anginal drug<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

3<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1,2,3-Propanetriol, monoacetate<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5.881<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.62<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

93<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Anti-cancer42<\/sup><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

4<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2-Undecanone (CAS)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

6.242<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.45<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

93<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Anti-inflammatory<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

5<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

DL-Proline, 5-oxo-, methyl ester<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

7.15<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.08<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

89<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Antimicrobial<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

6<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2-Acetoxytetradecane<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

7.379<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.2<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

90<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Antibacterial43<\/sup><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

7<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Diethyl Phthalate<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

8.886<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.68<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

98<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

 <\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

8<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

4-(3,4-Methylenedioxyphenyl)-2-butanone<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

9.083<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.41<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

95<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Food flavor<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

9<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

7H-Furo[3,2-g][1]benzopyran-7-one<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

11.016<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.1<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

95<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

 <\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

10<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

n-Hexadecanoic acid<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

11.46<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.84<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

96<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Palmitic Acid<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

11<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2H-1-Benzopyran-2-one, 7-hydroxy-6-methoxy- (CAS)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

11.818<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

91<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Scopoletin<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

12<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Xanthotoxin<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

12.335<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.27<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

93<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Neuroprotective44<\/sup><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

13<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Phytol<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

12.424<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.07<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

97<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Precursor of vitamin E<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

14<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Methoxsalen<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

12.514<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

92<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Xanthotoxin<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

15<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

9,12,15-Octadecatrienoic acid, (Z,Z,Z)-<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

12.651<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

4.53<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

97<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Linolenic acid<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

16<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

7H-Furo[3,2-g][1]benzopyran-7-one, 2,3-dihydro-2-(1-hydroxy-1-methylethyl)-, (S)- (CAS)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

14.07<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.4<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

91<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

—<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

17<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1-Octadecanol (CAS)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

14.617<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.37<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

90<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Antimicrobial<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

18<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Acetamiprid<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

14.84<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.59<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

94<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Insecticide<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

19<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

dl-.alpha.-Tocopherol<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

20.201<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.68<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

95<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Antimicrobial37<\/sup><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

20<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Ergost-5-en-3-ol, (3.beta.,24R)- (CAS)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

22.24<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.26<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

95<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Campesterol<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

21<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Neophytadiene<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

23.627<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0.78<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

90<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Anti-inflammatory<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

22<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Stigmast-5-en-3-ol, (3.beta.)- (CAS)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

23.887<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.13<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

91<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Phytodterol<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

 <\/p>\n\n\n

SMME has 19 compounds that are similar to GC library, higher than 90%,\nincluding hydroxyamphetamine (Table 4). Hydroxyamphetamine is an indirect-acting\nadrenergic agonist. Its main effect is to induce the release of norepinephrine\nfrom the nerve ending, which indirectly initiates muscle\ncontraction. Previous studies cited that Suaeda monoica <\/em>flavonoids, saponins, alkaloids, polyphenols,\nresins, tannins, and coumarins are therapeutic phytoconstituents 45\u201347<\/sup>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Table 4: Details of phytocompounds detected by GC-MS analysis of Suaeda monoica <\/em>methanol extract (SMME).<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
\n

 <\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Compound<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Retention time<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Percentage<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Similarity<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Biological activities<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

1<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Benzeneacetic acid<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

5,845<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0,37<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

90<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

antitumor<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

2<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1,3-BENZENEDIOL<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

6,256<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0,26<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

95<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

catechol<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

3<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1H-Indole (CAS)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

6,494<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0,06<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

89<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

 <\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

4<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2-Methoxy-4-vinylphenol<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

6,567<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1,9<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

93<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

 Aromatic substance<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

5<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Phenol, 2,6-dimethoxy-<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

6,883<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0,46<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

95<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Anti-fungal<\/p>\n

Anti-helminthic<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

6<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2,4-Imidazolidinedione (CAS)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

6,924<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0,24<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

94<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Antioxidant48<\/sup><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

7<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

DL-Proline, 5-oxo-, methyl ester<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

7,152<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0,33<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

90<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

 <\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

8<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

p-Hydroxyamphetamine<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

7,95<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

95<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

 <\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

9<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1,2-Benzenedicarboxylic acid, diethyl ester (CAS)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

8,885<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

4,14<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

96<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

 <\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

10<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Neophytadiene<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

10,56<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0,51<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

94<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

 <\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

11<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester (CAS)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

11,199<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

2,73<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

96<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

 <\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

12<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

9,12,15-Octadecatrienoic acid, methyl ester, (Z,Z,Z)- (CAS)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

12,375<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0,41<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

91<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

 <\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

13<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Phytol<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

12,415<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1,34<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

96<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

 <\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

14<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

9,12,15-Octadecatrienoic acid, (Z,Z,Z)-<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

12,631<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3,45<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

92<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

 <\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

15<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

n-Tetracosanol-1<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

14,605<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0,46<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

90<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Lignoceryl alcohol<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

16<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1,2-Benzenedicarboxylic acid, mono(2-ethylhexyl) ester<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

14,862<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0,69<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

94<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Anti-microbial<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

17<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1-Docosanol (CAS)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

19,568<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

0,25<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

90<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

antiviral<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

18<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Vitamin E<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

20,189<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

4,85<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

95<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

 <\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

19<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Stigmasterol<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

22,634<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3,02<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

94<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

 <\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

 <\/p>\n\n\n

Stigmasterol, an essential biochemical present in the three extracts, protects\nagainst ketamine-induced psychotic symptoms49<\/sup>. Additionally,\nstigmast-5-en-3-ol increases glucose intake and overcomes insulin resistance50<\/sup>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

On another hand, these extracts contain substances that could be toxic to\nanimals and humans. Diethyl phthalate, octadecanol, heptadecane, Tricosenoic\nacid are among these toxic compounds. They are interested in several industrial\nfields. Dihydrobenzofuran, known as coumaran, is an acetylcholinesterase\ninhibitor and can be used as a biofumigant51<\/sup>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Several gram-positive and gram-negative bacterial strains were used to\ntest the potential antibacterial activities of the different extracts. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Tables 5 and 6 present the antibacterial activity results of this study.\nTable 5 shows the inhibition IZD, while Table 6 shows the MIC values.\nGentamicin (150 \u03bcg\/ml), antibiotic that affects all used bacterial strain, is\nthe positive control in this research. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Table 5: Anti-microbial activities of the different extracts (30mg\/ml) and gentamycin (150 \u00b5g\/ml). Inhibition zones are presented as mean \u00b1 SD. The extracts were Artemisia judaica<\/em> methanol extract (AJME), Ruta graveolens<\/em> methanol extract (RGME), Suaeda monoica <\/em>methanol extract (SMME).<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
\n

 <\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

E. coli<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

P. aeruginosa<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

S. typhimurium<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

M. luteus<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

S. aureus<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

B. cereus<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Gentamicin<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

20\u00b11,1<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

18\u00b10,8<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

20\u00b11<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

19\u00b11,5<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

25\u00b10,7<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

20\u00b11<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

RGME<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

20\u00b10,9<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

22\u00b11<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

20\u00b10,9<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

24\u00b11,2<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

32\u00b10,6<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

18\u00b11,6<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

AJME<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

18\u00b12<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

18\u00b11.3<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

ND<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

ND<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

ND<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

14\u00b12<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

SMME<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

24\u00b10,5<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

ND<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

ND<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

18\u00b12<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

10\u00b11<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

ND<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n

 <\/p>\n\n\n

Table 6: Minimum inhibition concentrations of the different extracts. The extracts were Artemisia judaica<\/em> methanol extract (AJME), Ruta graveolens<\/em> methanol extract (RGME), Suaeda monoica <\/em>methanol extract (SMME). <\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
\n

 <\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

E. coli<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

P. aeruginosa<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

S. typhimurium<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

M. luteus<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

S. aureus<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

B. cereus<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

RGME<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

6.25<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

12.5<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

12.5<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

3.12<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

1.55<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

12.5<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

AJME<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

12.5<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

12.5<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

—<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

—<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

—<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

25<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

SMME<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

12.5<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

—<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

—<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

12.5<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

25<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

–<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n\n\n

Our current results showed the existence of varied and selective anti-microbial\nactivities of the different extracts. RGME was effective in inhibiting the\ngrowth of all tested microorganisms. However, only E. coli <\/em>appeared to be sensitive to SMME. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

According to AlMousa (2021), the active fraction of the ethyl acetate Artemisia judaica<\/em> extract as an anti-microbial effect is significantly observed using disc diffusion assays (at 30 \u00b5\/mL) against P. aeruginosa<\/em>, S.<\/em> aureus<\/em>, F. solani<\/em>, and A. niger<\/em>52<\/sup>. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

A recent study by Helal et al.<\/em>\n(2019) reported that Ruta graveolens <\/em>extract\nshowed total lack of anti-microbial activity against E. coli <\/em>and S. typhimurium<\/em>40<\/sup>. However,essential oils of this plant have high\nantibacterial activity on S. aureus<\/em>, K. pneumoniae<\/em>, P. aeruginosa,<\/em> and E. coli<\/em> with MIC values 3.5\u20133.9 \u03bcg\/ml,\n4.5\u20135.2 \u03bcg\/ml, 5.8\u20136.3 \u03bcg\/ml, and 7.5\u20137.94 \u03bcg\/ml, respectively53<\/sup>. In\naddition, according to previous research, Suaeda\nmonoica<\/em> leaves are a potential good source of antibacterial agents29<\/sup>.\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n

This research carried out MTT assay to investigate AJME, RGME, and SMME\ncytotoxic activities on the MCF-7 cell line. Current results showed that Artemisia judaica (<\/em>Asteraceae), Ruta graveolens (<\/em>Rutaceae), and Suaeda monoica<\/em> (Chenopodiaceae) are\nnatural sources of cytotoxic agents. AJME has the highest cytotoxic potential\n(IC50135.7 \u00b1 17.51) against MCF-7 cell line compared to SMME and RGME\n(cytotoxic potential of SMME and RGME are 176.07 \u00b1 14.39; 285.22 \u00b1 24.1,\nrespectively). <\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n
\"\"<\/td>\n\n

Figure 3: Cytotoxic effect of different extract concentrations (AJME, RGME, SMME) on MCF-7 cell line. MTT assay was used to evaluate the percentage of cell viability. <\/strong><\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

Click here to view Figure<\/a><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n\n\n

Several researchers confirmed these results, Nasr et al.,<\/em> (2020); proved that Artemisia\njudaica<\/em> methanol extract exhibited anti-proliferation activity against cell\nlines, including MCF-7, HepG2 Liver cells, and LoVo colon cells53<\/sup>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Additionally, Varamini et al.,<\/em>\n(2009) study pointed the high cytotoxic activity of R. graveolens<\/em> ethanol extract against different human tumor cell\nlines (such as; Burkitt\u2019s lymphoma cell lines RAJI, RAMOS, prostate\nadenocarcinoma cell line (LNCap-FGC-10), cell lung carcinoma (Mehr-80) with\nIC(50); 24.3 microg\/ml, 35.2 microg\/ml, 27.6 microg\/ml, 46.2 microg\/ml,\nrespectivelly54<\/sup>. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Conclusion<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

In conclusion, this study demonstrated that the\nmethanol extracts of Artemisia judaica (Asteraceae), Ruta graveolens\n(Rutaceae), and Suaeda monoica (Chenopodiaceae), indigenous plants in the Jazan\nProvince of Saudi Arabia, contain various metabolites that have important\nantioxidant, antibacterial, and cytotoxic activities. Thus, further research\nare recommended to isolate and purify their active compounds.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Acknowledgement <\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Researchers would like to thank Jazan University membership and Scientific Research deanship for their support and efforts to succeed this project.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Conflict of Interests<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

None to declare. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Funding source<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

This research was supported by a grant (000153\/7\/37) from Jazan University, Saudi Arabia.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

References<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

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    Abbreviations<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    AJME<\/strong>: Artemisia judaica<\/em> Methanol Extract; <\/p>\n\n\n\n

    RGME<\/strong>: Ruta graveolens<\/em>  Methanol Extract; <\/p>\n\n\n\n

    SMME<\/strong>: Suaeda monoica <\/em>Methanol Extract; <\/p>\n\n\n\n

    TPC<\/strong>: total phenolic contents; <\/p>\n\n\n\n

    TFC<\/strong>: total flavonoids contents; <\/p>\n\n\n\n

    DPPH<\/strong>: 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl;<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    FRAP:<\/strong> Ferric reducing anti-oxidative power ; <\/p>\n\n\n\n

    GCMS<\/strong>:  Gas Chromatography Mass Spectroscopy ; <\/p>\n\n\n\n

    MTT<\/strong>: (3-(4, 5–2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide; <\/p>\n\n\n\n

    OD<\/strong>: Optical density;  <\/p>\n\n\n\n

    MIC<\/strong>: minimum inhibitory concentration; <\/p>\n\n\n\n

    IZD<\/strong>: inhibition zone diameters.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

    Introduction During the last decades, several researchers reported the effectiveness […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":15,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[109],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-52173","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-vol16no3"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/biomedpharmajournal.org\/staging\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/52173","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/biomedpharmajournal.org\/staging\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/biomedpharmajournal.org\/staging\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/biomedpharmajournal.org\/staging\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/15"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/biomedpharmajournal.org\/staging\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=52173"}],"version-history":[{"count":5,"href":"https:\/\/biomedpharmajournal.org\/staging\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/52173\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":52525,"href":"https:\/\/biomedpharmajournal.org\/staging\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/52173\/revisions\/52525"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/biomedpharmajournal.org\/staging\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=52173"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/biomedpharmajournal.org\/staging\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=52173"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/biomedpharmajournal.org\/staging\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=52173"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}