{"id":50507,"date":"2023-09-30T11:56:53","date_gmt":"2023-09-30T11:56:53","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/biomedpharmajournal.org\/?p=50507"},"modified":"2023-10-07T08:26:19","modified_gmt":"2023-10-07T08:26:19","slug":"a-review-on-thrombolysis-enhancing-indian-edible-plants","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/biomedpharmajournal.org\/staging\/vol16no3\/a-review-on-thrombolysis-enhancing-indian-edible-plants\/","title":{"rendered":"A Review on Thrombolysis Enhancing Indian Edible Plants"},"content":{"rendered":"\n

Introduction<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Plants are nature\u2019s\nwonderful gift to mankind,\nnot only for providing oxygen as one of the most essential requirements of human existence but\nalso for providing food, fodder, fiber, fuel, medicine, dye, timber, etc. Primitive people lived in forests and used natural\nresources for survival.\nThey realized the importance of various plant\nspecies available in the surroundings and started using those species to fulfil\nthe needs of daily life. They also noticed\nthat plants can also\nact as medicine for prevention and cure of many diseases and ailments and\ntherefore, included several plants in diets. The study of such man-plant relationships forms the\ndiscipline of Ethnobotany1<\/sup>. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Several edible plants\nplay a very important role in the\nlives of ethnic communities as they not only provide fresh\nfood but also useful sources\nof nutrients, medicines, firewood, dyes, building materials, and help in\ngenerating income. Moreover,\ncultivation of edible plants also helps in the conservation of many\nwild plants which are under pressure due to various biodiversity threats.\nTherefore, a number of studies have been carried out in various parts of the\nworld to document the ethnobotanical\nknowledge associated with wild edible plant species2-7<\/sup>. Interestingly, many\nsuch plant species have demonstrated significant pharmacological activities in\nanimal and human studies,\nsuch as\nantioxidant, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antimicrobial, hypoglycemic,\nhepatoprotective, anticonvulsant, anti-platelet aggregation, adaptogenic,\nimmunomodulatory, hypotensive, hypolipidemic, cytotoxic, anti-proliferative,\ndiuretic, and nootropic8-10<\/sup>. Furthermore, these\nplants are rich in various phytochemicals such as flavonoids, phenols, tannins,\nalkaloids, saponins, steroids,\netc. The presence of\nbioactive molecules and pharmacological\nactivities scientifically validate many of the folk medicinal claims for the edible plant\nspecies and serve as good evidence to recommend them as functional foods. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Thrombus is the main\nculprit behind cardio-vascular diseases (CVD), leading towards the development of\ndiseases like stroke, embolism, ischemia, deep vein thrombosis etc. Lysis of\nthrombus is an important event naturally going on in the body with the help of\nprocesses such as fibrinolysis. The mechanism behind thrombolytic action is by\nactivating plasminogen,\nwhich forms plasmin. Plasmin thus formed cleaves the fibrin and the clot is finally\ndissolved. If the body\u2019s\nnatural thrombolysis is reduced or impaired for several reasons, it\nmay have serious consequences. In that case, modern medicine takes the help of\nsynthetic thrombolytic agents such as streptokinase, urokinase, tissue\nplasminogen activator and\/or anistreplase, reteplase, tenecteplase. These\nagents mainly activate plasminogen to start a cascade of events\nrelated to\nthrombolysis. However, some serious side effects are also associated with these\nagents,\nnecessitating\nthe need for the development\nof comparatively safer as well as cost-effective thrombolytic\nmolecules11-13<\/sup>.\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The diet-disease relationship\nhas been explored in many scientific studies, and changes in dietary\nbehaviour\nhave been shown\nto reduce the risk of cardio-metabolic disorders. Dietary modifications to\nimprove various health conditions are now a preferred method of treatment as well\nas prevention of upcoming diseases14<\/sup>.\nPlants have played an important role in various therapeutic diets, such as, Mediterranean diet\nand Dietary Approaches\nto Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet15<\/sup>. It is recommended that intake of plants which\nare easily digestible and have high fiber content could be less stressful for\nheart during acute stages of heart disease16<\/sup>. In\nview of this, plants have\nbeen explored to provide safe, effective, and cheaper\nthrombolytic molecules. Many\nplant species have exhibited in vitro<\/em>\nthrombolytic potential in scientific studies carried out in different parts of\nthe world17<\/sup>.\nMoreover, some of those studied plants are also used as edibles among Indian ethnic communities.\nThe present paper is to provide an overview of current knowledge on edible\nplant species that\nhave demonstrated in vitro<\/em>\nthrombolytic potential\nand to provide scope for future research.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Materials and Methods<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

For this purpose,\nfirst, a\nlisting of plants which have shown in\nvitro<\/em> thrombolytic activity was done by screening online databases such as\nPubmed, Google Scholar, Research\nGate, Science Direct,\nTaylor and Francis, and Springer Link as well as\nbooks and non-impact and non-indexed journals using keywords such as \u2018in vitro<\/em> thrombolysis, clot lysis, plants, herbs\u2019 up to July 2022. Further short-listing of those\nplants was carried out by using \u2018Compendium\nof Indian Folk Medicine and Ethnobotany\u2019<\/em>6<\/sup>\nas a reference book to find out whether those plant parts are consumed in diets\nof Indian ethnic\ncommunities. The resultant plants were categorised into four, i.e<\/em>., having more than 70%, between 50 and 70%, between 30 and 50%, and less than 30%\nthrombolytic potential and details\nare given in Tables 1-4 respectively in which the plants are\nlisted alphabetically by botanical names, along with their families, common\nnames\nin English, habit, plant\npart used, percent clot lysis,\nand the corresponding reference. Updated botanical nomenclature for all the plants was used as available on the website 151<\/sup>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Results and Discussion<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The present paper\nprovides the botanical\nnames and families of 43\nedible plant species along with their in\nvitro<\/em> percent clot lysis activity. These 43 plants have been\ndistributed in 33 Angiosperm\nfamilies and the most\ndominant family was Asteraceae\nwith four plants, followed\nby Fabaceae with three\nplants and two each in\nthe Cucurbitaceae, Solanaceae, Rutaceae, Zingiberaceae, and\nAraceae families. Rest 26\nfamilies represent a single plant species. Seven plants belong to the monocotyledon group\nand 36\nplants belong to the\ndicotyledon group (Tables 1-4). The highest number of plants is represented as herbs (58.13%) followed\nby trees (23.25%), shrubs, and climbers (9.3% each) as depicted in Figure 1.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Table 1: Edible plants with in vitro thrombolytic potential > 70%<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
\n

Botanical name & <\/strong>F<\/strong>amily<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Common name<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Habit<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Plant part<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Percent clot lysis<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

References<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Baccaurea ramiflora <\/em>Lour. (Euphorbiaceae)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Burmese grape<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

    Tree<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

   Seed<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

     88.21<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

18<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Bauhinia purpurea <\/em>L. (Fabaceae)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Purple butterfly tree<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

    Tree<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

 Leaves<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

      91.02<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

19<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n\n\n

The\nstudies included in this paper have a range of 41 to 86% thrombolytic activity\nfor the positive control, streptokinase, and a two-to-ten percent range of\nthrombolytic activity of distilled water as a negative control.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n
\"\"<\/td>\n\n

Figure 1: Growth form of Indian edible plants showing in vitro<\/em> clot lysis<\/strong><\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

Click here to view Figure<\/a><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n\n\n

Table 2: Edible plants with in vitro<\/em> thrombolytic potential between 50-70%<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
\n

Botanical name & <\/strong>F<\/strong>amily<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Common name<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Habit<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Plant part<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Percent clot lysis<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

References<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Coccinia grandis <\/em>(L.) Voigt. syn. Coccinia indica <\/em>Wight. & Arn. (Cucurbitaceae)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Scarlet-fruited Ivy gourd<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Climber<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

   Leaf<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

        57.94<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

20<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Curcuma longa<\/em> L. (Zingiberaceae)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Turmeric       <\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

   Herb<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Rhizome<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

        53.32<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

21<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Cyperus rotundus <\/em>L. (Cyperaceae)<\/p>\n

Typha domingensis <\/em>Pers. (Typhaceae)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Common Nut Sedge      <\/p>\n

Southern Cattail<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

   Herb<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

   Herb<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Rhizome<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Whole  plant<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

        60.00<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

        67.16<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

22<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

23<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n\n\n

Notably, two plants\nhave shown more than 70% thrombolytic potential (Table 1) and four have shown 50-70%\nthrombolytic potential (Table 2). Twenty-six plants have shown\nbetween 30 and 50%\nin vitro<\/em> thrombolytic potential\n(Table 3) and twelve\nplants have shown less than 30% thrombolytic potential (Table 4). <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Table 3: Edible plants with in vitro<\/em> thrombolytic potential between 30-50%<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
\n

Botanical name & <\/strong>F<\/strong>amily<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Common name<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Habit<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Plant part<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Percent clot lysis<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

References<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Acmella paniculata <\/em>(Wall. ex DC.) R.K. Jansen syn. Spilanthes paniculata <\/em>Wall. ex DC. (Asteraceae)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Panicled spot flower<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Herb<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Leaves<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

42.77<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

24<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Anacardium occidentale<\/em> L. (Anacardiaceae)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Cashew nut<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Tree<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Nut<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

33.79<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

25<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Bacopa monnieri<\/em> Wettst. (Plantaginaceae)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Water hyssop<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Herb<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Leaf<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

47.39<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

26<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Boerhavia diffusa<\/em> L. (Nyctaginaceae)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Horse Purslane<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Herb<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Leaf<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

38.42<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

27<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Brassica oleracea <\/em>L. (Brassicaceae) <\/em><\/p>\n

Capparis decidua<\/em> Edgew. (Capparaceae)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Cabbage<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Bare Caper    <\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Herb<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Shrub      <\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Flower<\/p>\n

Leaves<\/p>\n

Fruit<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

42.75<\/p>\n

30.24\u2009<\/p>\n

32.39<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

28<\/p>\n

29<\/p>\n

30<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Capsicum frutescens<\/em> L. (Solanaceae)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Capsicum<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Herb<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Fruit<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

36.87<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

29<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Coriandrum sativum<\/em> L. (Apiaceae)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Coriander<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Herb<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Fruit<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

43.25<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

21<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Cuscuta reflexa <\/em>Roxb. (Cuscutaceae)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Devils hair<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Climber<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Whole plant<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

44.63<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

31<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Ficus racemosa <\/em>L. syn. Ficus glomerata <\/em>Roxb. (Moraceae)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Cluster fig<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Tree<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Fruits<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

47.23<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

32<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Homalomena aromatica <\/em>(Spreng.) Schott (Araceae)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Gandh kochu<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Herb<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Leaf<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

33.31<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

33<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Leea indica <\/em>(Burm.f.) Merr. (Leeaceae)<\/p>\n

Luffa cylindrica<\/em> L. (Cucurbitaceae)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Bandicoot berry<\/p>\n

Sponge gourd<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Shrub<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Climber<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Leaf<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Fruit<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

39.30<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

45<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

34<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

35<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Merremia vitifolia <\/em>(Burm.f.) Hallier. f. (Convolvulaceae)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Grape-leaf wood rose<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Herb<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Leaf<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

42.48<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

36<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Moringa oleifera<\/em> Lam. (Moringaceae)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Horse Raddish Tree<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Tree<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Leaf<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

41.40<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

37<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Ocimum tenuiflorum <\/em>L. syn. Ocimum sanctum<\/em> L. (Lamiaceae)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Holy Basil<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Shrub<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Leaves<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

30.01<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

25<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Piper nigrum <\/em>L. (Piperaceae)<\/p>\n

Punica granatum<\/em> L. (Punicaceae)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Black Pepper<\/p>\n

Pomegranate<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Climber<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Shrub<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Fruit<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Fruit<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

35.4<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

38<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

38<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

39<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Sesamum indicum<\/em> L. (Pedaliaceae)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Sesame<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Herb<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Seed<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

32.94<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

38<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Spinacia oleracea<\/em> L. (Amaranthaceae)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Spinach<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Herb<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Leaves<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

40.9<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

40<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Solanum torvum <\/em>Swartz. (Solanaceae)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Turkey berry<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Herb<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Fruit<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

31.51<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

34<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Syzygium aromaticum <\/em>Merr. & L.M.Perry. (Myrtaceae)<\/p>\n

Tribulus terrestris <\/em>L.(Zygophyllaceae) <\/em><\/p>\n

Vigna mungo<\/em> (L.) Hepper (Fabaceae)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Clove<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Puncture vine<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Black Gram<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

 <\/p>\n

Tree<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Herb<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Herb<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

 <\/p>\n

Flower buds<\/p>\n

Seed<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Seed<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

 <\/p>\n

32.18<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

33<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

31.52<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

 <\/p>\n

21<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

41<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

42<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Vigna unguiculata <\/em>(L.) Walp. (Fabaceae)<\/p>\n

Zingiber officinale<\/em> Roscoe (Zingiberaceae)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Cowpea<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Ginger<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Herb<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Herb<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Seed<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Rhizome<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

40.33<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

30.13<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

43<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

44<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n\n\n

Table 4: Edible plants with in vitro<\/em> thrombolytic potential <30%<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n
\n

Botanical name & <\/strong>F<\/strong>amily<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Common name<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

 Habit<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Plant part<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Percent clot lysis<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

References<\/strong><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Averrhoa bilimbi <\/em>L. (Oxalidaceae)<\/p>\n

Camellia sinensis<\/em> (L.) O. Kuntze (Theaceae)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Bilimbi<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Black Tea<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Tree<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Herb<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Fruit<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Leaves<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

23.94<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

11.64<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

45<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

46<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Cinnamomum tamala<\/em> T. Nees & Eberm. (Lauraceae)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Indian bay leaf<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Tree<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Leaves<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

22.10<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

21<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Eclipta prostrata<\/em> (L.) L. (Asteraceae)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

False Daisy<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Herb<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Leaves<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

15.19<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

24<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Emilia sonchifolia <\/em>(L.) DC.ex DC. (Asteraceae)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Red tassel-flower<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Herb<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Leaf<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

28.71<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

24<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Launaea sarmentosa <\/em>Schult. Bip. ex Kuntze (Asteraceae)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Beach Launaea<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Herb<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Whole plant<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

22.57<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

47<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Moringa oleifera<\/em> Lam. (Moringaceae)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Horse Raddish Tree<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Tree<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Flower<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

20.52<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

37<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Murraya koenigii<\/em> Sprin (Rutaceae)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Curry leaf tree<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Tree<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Leaves<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

22.14<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

40<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Musa<\/em> sp. var. Nanjangud rasa<\/em> bale<\/em> (Musaceae)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Banana<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Herb<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Flower pseudostem<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

18<\/p>\n

13<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

48<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Nigella sativa<\/em> L. (Ranunculaceae)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Black cumin<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Herb<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Seeds<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

28.49<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

21<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Pistia stratiotes <\/em>L. (Araceae)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Water lettuce<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Herb<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Leaves<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

12.06<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

49<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n

\n

Zanthoxylum rhetsa <\/em>DC. (Rutaceae)<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Indian prickly ash<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Tree<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

Leaves<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

25.23<\/p>\n<\/td>\n

\n

50<\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n\n\n

One plant, namely, Moringa oleifera<\/em> (Fig. 2), has been listed twice\nin Tables 3 and 4 with different plant parts (leaves and flowers) and counted\nonly once. M. oleifera<\/em> is considered\nas \u2018The Miracle\ntree\u2019\nwith its multifarious beneficial activities for human health. Though its leaves\nand flowers possess moderate thrombolytic potential (between 20 to 42%), but along with many\nnutritive and therapeutic phytochemicals and other pharmacological activities,\nthis plant could be very well recommended for dietary therapeutics in the prevention of\ncardiovascular diseases52<\/sup>. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Plants having >70% thrombolytic\nactivity<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Interestingly,\nethanolic extract of Bauhinia\npurpurea<\/em> (Fig. 3) leaves have shown 91.02%\nclot lysis activity, which was more than the standard drug\nstreptokinase, having 72.83% clot lysis activity (Table 1).\nLeaves of B. purpurea<\/em> are used as vegetables in Bengal, Bihar,\nOdisha, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh and some North-East states of India6<\/sup>. Leaves have shown presence\nof flavonoids, quercetin, rutin, apigenin and apigenin 7-O-glucoside along with\nlupeol (34.48%), stigmasterol\n(15.63 %), lanosterol (4.15 %), ergosterol (2.82 %), hexadeconic\nacid, hexadeconic acid methyl esters, octadecadienoic acids and octadecatrienoic\nacid, beta-tocopherol, phytol, and vitamin E acetate53,54<\/sup> as well as hypoglycemic, antidiarrhoeal and antimicrobial55\n<\/sup>activities. Similarly, aqueous\nextract of Baccaurea ramiflora<\/em> seeds have shown 88.21% clot lysis, which was more than the\nstandard drug streptokinase, which had 78.98% clot lysis (Table\n1). B.\nramiflora<\/em> is a wild edible plant native to north-eastern states\nsuch as Meghalaya, Manipur,\nand Arunachal Pradesh6<\/sup>.\nIt is also used during the holy rituals in the\u2018Rathyatra\u2019 procession\nof Lord Jagannath in Odisha56<\/sup>.\nThe fruits of B. ramiflora<\/em> are\nrich in vitamin C, protein, and\niron54<\/sup>. Seeds have shown presence of Sapidolide A and\ncytotoxic, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, CNS depressant and antidiarrheal57-58<\/sup>, antioxidant59<\/sup>, hypolipidemic60<\/sup>\nand antimicrobial\nactivities61<\/sup>. Seed oil contains\npalmitic acid (33.67%), stearic acid (19.38%), arachidic acid (9.38%), oleic\nacid (24.48%), 11-transeicosenoic acid (12.75%) and a\nhigh\niodine value of 80.3262<\/sup>. In view of this, seeds\nof B. ramiflora<\/em> could be included in the\ndiet\nfor nutritional as well as therapeutic benefits.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Plants having 50-70% thrombolytic\nactivity<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Table 2 shows that\nthere are four\nplants that\nhave shown more than 50% but less than 70% thrombolytic potential. These are Coccinia grandis<\/em>\n(Fig. 4), Curcuma\nlonga<\/em>,<\/em> Cyperus rotundus<\/em> and Typha domingensis<\/em>.\nLeaves of C. grandis<\/em> have been\nshown\nto possess anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic,\nanalgesic, and antipyretic activities with\nbeta-sitosterol as an important phyto-constituent along with phenolic and\nflavonoid compounds63<\/sup>. These are added\nadvantage to its in vitro<\/em> thrombolytic effect, which was 57.94% as\nobserved in a study by Sultana et al.20<\/sup>. Methanolic extract\nof rhizome of C. longa<\/em> has shown\n53.32% in vitro<\/em> clot lysis potential.\nIn view of this and its other activities such as platelet aggregation\ninhibition, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant activities, it is one of the most\nuseful spices used in Indian cuisines64,65<\/sup>. The active\ningredient of Turmeric is Curcumin, which possesses anti-viral and\nimmunomodulatory activities along with other pharmacological activities66<\/sup>. Tuberous roots of Cyperus\nrotundus<\/em>L. are popularly known as \u2018Nagarmotha\u2019<\/em> in Western\nIndia and are used to treat various ailments by native\ncommunities of India. It is also used as an\nedible\ninNorth Bihar, Rajasthan and the Attapadi hills\nsituated in the Western\nGhats of India6<\/sup>.\nEthanolic extract of its rhizome (200\u00b5g\/ml) has shown 60% in vitro<\/em> thrombolytic potential22<\/sup> which validate the\ntraditional knowledge on its use to treat heart stroke by Taungya <\/em>community\nin Terai Arc Landscape of India67<\/sup>. Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory,\ncardioprotective, hypolipidemic, antidiabetic, antiobesity, antiplatelet etc.\nare some of its other health-beneficial activities, recommending it for\ndietary intake68<\/sup>. Leaves and shoots of Typha domingensis<\/em> are used for food purpose by Konda Reddis <\/em>of\nRampa Agency, East Godavari District, Andhra Pradesh, and the inflorescence\nis consumed in North-East states of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh6<\/sup>. It\nhas been shown to possess antioxidant, vasodilator, hypolipidemic,\nbronchodilator, cytotoxic, antimicrobial activities and is rich in vitamin E,\nnonacosane, piperine, triacontane, n-hexadecanoic acid, decanoic acid, tetracosane, oleic acid, phytol, sitosterol, naringenin, n-acetoacetyl-deacetylcolchicine\nand many other phyto-therapeutic compounds23,69<\/sup>. <\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n
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Figure 2: Moringa oleifera<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

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Figure 3: Bauhinia purpurea<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

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Figure 4: Coccinia grandis<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

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Spices having thrombolytic activity<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Spices have shown\nmoderate thrombolytic potential such as Clove (Syzygium aromaticum<\/em>),Black pepper (Piper nigrum<\/em>), Ginger\n(Zingiber officinale<\/em>), Red\nchilly (Capsicum frutescens<\/em>),\nCoriander (Coriandrum sativum<\/em>),\nIndian Bayleaf (Cinnamomum tamala<\/em>) as\ndepicted in Table 3 and 4. Some of these spices have also demonstrated\nanti-platelet potential,\nwhich is an important mechanism of clot lysis17<\/sup>. Figure 5 depicts 20 common edible plants\nhaving in vitro<\/em> thrombolytic activity\nout of the 43\nscrutinized plant species. These species also possess several therapeutic\nbioactive compounds. For example, capsaicinoids, flavonoids, carotenoids,\nsteroids, saponins in Capsicum<\/em>;\nmonoterpene, sesquiterpene, geraniol, linolol, bornyl acetate, phytosterols,\ncaryophylene oxide, pcoumaric acid, vanillic acid etc. in Cinnamomum tamala<\/em>; flavonoids, gallic acid, ferulic acid,\ncoumarins, salicylic acid, tartaric acid, maleic acid, arbutin etc. in Coriandrum sativum<\/em>; murrayazolidine,\nmurrayazoline, murrayacine, koenimbine, koenine, mahanimbine, <\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n
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Figure <\/strong>5<\/strong>: Some common edible plants demonstrating in vitro<\/em> thrombolytic activity<\/strong><\/p>\n

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girinimbine, mukoeic acid etc. in Murraya koenigii<\/em> (Fig. 6); p-cymene, carvacrol, thymoquinone, thymohydroquinone, dithymoquinone, 4-terpineol, tanethol, sesquiterpene longifolene \u03b1-pinene etc. in Nigella sativa<\/em>; eugenol, carvacrol, linalool, \u03b2-caryophyllene, rosmarinic acid, oleanolic acid, ursolic acid etc. in Ocimum<\/em> tenuiflorum<\/em> (Fig. 7); gingerol, shoagaol, paradol, quercetin, zingerone, gingerenone-A in Zingiber officinale<\/em> (Fig. 8); Piperine as major constituent in Piper nigrum<\/em> besides volatile oil, oleoresins, and alkaloids; sesamin, sesamol, sesamolin, pinoresinol etc. in Sesamum indicum<\/em> (Fig. 9) and eugenol, eugenyl acetate, \u03b2-caryophyllene etc. in Syzygium aromaticum<\/em>70<\/sup>. Besides, many pharmacological activities such as antioxidant, anticancer, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, immuno-modulatory, hepatoprotective, platelet aggregation inhibition, neuro-protective, nephroprotective, and cardio-protective have also been reported from these plants8,70-72<\/sup>. This further emphasizes that use of these plants in the diet could be beneficial for many purposes. <\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n
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Figure 6: Murraya<\/em><\/strong> koenigii<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n

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Figure 7: Ocimum tenuiflorum<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

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Figure 8: Zingiber officinale<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

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Figure 9: Sesamum indicum<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

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Thrombolytic activity of leaves of edible plants<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Plant based diets\nincluding leafy green vegetables provide strong evidence for benefits in\ncardiovascular risk factors such as obesity, diabetes, hypertension, high lipid\nlevels etc.73<\/sup>.\nIn the present analysis, leaves of 42% of the plants were consumed\nand reported to possess thrombolytic activity, followed by fruits (22%), seeds (13.33%), flowers (8.88%), and rhizome and whole\nplant (6.66% each), which is depicted in Figure 10.  <\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n
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Figure <\/strong>10<\/strong>: Percent contribution of parts of the edible plants demonstrated  in vitro<\/em> thrombolytic activity.<\/strong><\/p>\n

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Spinacia\noleracea<\/em> is a well-known leafy\nvegetable that\nhas shown 40.9% thrombolytic potential (Table 3). It is considered a functional\nfood as it is rich in various vitamins and minerals as well as many therapeutic\nphytochemicals such as flavones, flavanols, glucuronides,\nmethylenedioxyflavonol glucuronides, and carotenoids. Spinach helps in\nscavenging reactive oxygen species and thereby prevents macromolecular\noxidative damage. It has also been\nshown to modulate genes which are involved in metabolism,\nproliferation, inflammation, and antioxidant defense and therefore,\ndemonstrates various pharmacological activities such as antioxidant, hypolipidemic,\nhypoglycemic, anti-hypertriglyceridemia, anti-obesity, anticancer,\nanti-inflammatory, anti-\u03b1-amylase, and bileacid binding capacity74,75<\/sup>. In view of this,\nintake of spinach can\nhelp in thrombolysis and\nalso provide protection against several other ailments. <\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n
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Figure 11: Anacardium occidentale<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

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Leaves of Murraya koenigii<\/em>; known as Curry leaf\ntree is used for flavor in various Indian cuisines6<\/sup> and\nexhibited 22.14% in vitro<\/em>\nthrombolytic potential (Table 4). The cardioprotective potential of Murraya koenigii <\/em>has been demonstrated\nin doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity in Wistar albino rats.\nLyophilized leaf\nextract of M.<\/em> koenigii<\/em> was administered orally in a concentration of 2\u2009g\/kg to\nanimals for 14 days,\nwhich significantly reduced the levels of cardiac troponin I, NT-pro BNP,\naspartate aminotransferase, lactate dehydrogenase, myeloperoxidase along\nwith improvement in reduced glutathione, glutathione reductase, glutathione\nperoxidase, total antioxidant capacity, superoxide dismutase, and catalase\nactivity,\nalong with a reduction\nin lipid peroxidation levels76<\/sup>.\nThis clearly indicates the\ncardio-protection ability of M. koenigii <\/em>along with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, and therefore, its\ndaily consumption could be beneficial for the heart. Leaves of Bacopa monnieri<\/em>; a well-known memory-improving plant, have shown 47.39%\nthrombolytic activity (Table 3). This small herb is rich in several\nphytochemicals for example, luteolin, quercetin, apigenin, ursolic acid,\nbacopasides, <\/em>\u03b2-sitosterol, stigmasterol, ascorbic acid,\nbacopasaponins, bacoside, cucurbitacins, wogonin and exhibited various\nhealth-beneficial activities such as adaptogenic, antioxidant,\nantihypertensive, antilipidemia, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antidiabetic,\nantiarthritic, anticancer, smooth muscle relaxant antipyretic, neuroprotective,\nand hepatoprotective77<\/sup>. Thus, clot lysis activity is an additional benefit gained by people\nafter consuming its leaves. The leaves of sacred Holy Basil (Ocimum\ntenuiflorum<\/em>) have also demonstrated anticoagulant properties by prolonging prothrombin time and activated partial thromboplastin time with linolenic acid as a\nmajor constituent78<\/sup>. The cardioprotective potential of\nhydroalcoholic extract of O. tenuiflorum<\/em> has also been observed in isoproterenol induced myocardial\ninfarction in rats at a dose of 50 mg\/kg further indicating the importance\nof this herb in CVD79<\/sup>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Leaves of Emilia\nsonchifolia<\/em> are used to prepare vegetable in western Maharashtra and\nNagaland states of India. It is also recommended to treat chest pain by tribal\ncommunities in India6<\/sup>. Notably, it has demonstrated 28.71%\nclot lysis activity (Table 4). This plant is rich in flavonoids, flavones\nglycosides, beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol, ursolic acid, quercetin, quercitrin,\nrutin, kaempferol 3-\u03b2-D-galactoside, senkirkine, doronine, n-hexacosanol, and triacontane and has\nbeen shown\nto possess antioxidant, antidiabetic, anti-cataract, anti-inflammatory,\nantiviral, analgesic and anti-cancer activities80<\/sup>. Leaves\nof Acmella paniculata<\/em> are used for making vegetables in the north-eastern\nstates of India and are mostly used for the treatment of toothache6<\/sup>.\nIt is rich in phyto-constituents such as spilanthol,\n<\/em>\u03b2<\/em>-sitosterol,\nstigmasterol,\n<\/em>\u03b1<\/em>-and\n\u03b2<\/em>-amyrin, vanillic\nacid, limonene, \u03b2<\/em>-caryophyllene, (z)-\u03b2<\/em>-ocimene,\ngermacrene-D, scopoletin and trans<\/em>-ferulic acid and has\nalso demonstrated anti-inflammatory, antioxidant,\nvasorelaxant, immunomodulatory, and analgesic activities in animal studies81<\/sup>.\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Brassica oleracea<\/em> is another\npopular vegetable in India. Its flowers and leaves contain phenolics,\npolyphenols, saponins, tannins, steroids, flavonoids, alkaloids,\nglucosinolates, reducing sugars,\nand vitamin C. It has been\nshown to possess strong antioxidant activity in different\nantioxidant assays. Moreover, inhibition of DNA methylation, prevention of DNA\ndamage and threats to\ncancer and cardiovascular diseases are its other benefits. All these bioactive\nmolecules and pharmacological activities make it a good candidate for\nrecommending as a nutraceutical in daily diet82<\/sup>.\nWhole plant of Launaea\nsarmentosa<\/em> is used as vegetable in Lakshadweep\nIsland6<\/sup> and also in Vietnam as nutritious vegetable83<\/sup>. It\nhas also shown anti-inflammatory,\nantioxidant, antidiabetic, and hepatoprotective properties\nalong with 22.57% clot lysis potential84<\/sup>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Thrombolytic activity of fruits of\nedible plants<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Out\nof these 43, fruits from 10 plants are used in the diet (Fig. 10). For example,\nAnacardium\noccidentale<\/em> (Fig. 11)\nis one of the famous edible tree nuts. It is consumed as raw, roasted form or also\nused to prepare sweets in the\nwinter season85<\/sup>. Its kernels are rich in protein,\nvitamin E, K, B6, riboflavin, minerals like potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorous,\niron, copper, zinc, manganese, selenium etc., glutamic acid, arginine,\ncholesterol-lowering phytosterols, phosphatidylcholine, beta-sitosterol,\nlutein, zeaxanthin, epicatechin, catechin, polyphenols, flavanol etc. Cashewnuts\nhave been shown\nto possess antioxidant, hypoglycemic and hypotensive potential86<\/sup>. Thus, the\nthrombolytic action of A. occidentale<\/em>\nis an additional weapon for protection from several diseases, including\ncardiovascular diseases and metabolic syndrome. Pomegranate is another well-known fruit plant which is\nrich in ellagitannins, polyphenols, luteolin, kaempferol,\nquercetin, gallic acid, ellagic acid, punicalagin, gallagic acid, delphinidin,\ncyanidin, pelargonidin, catechin, punicalin, and minerals,\nsuch as sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, and nitrogen. Fruit and peel of Punica granatum<\/em> have shown anti-thrombotic potential besides\nanti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, hypolipidemic, anti-platelet, anticoagulant,\ncardio-protective and anticancer properties87-89<\/sup>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Fruits of Ficus racemosa<\/em>, known as \u2018Gular\u2019 in\nIndia,\nare rich in nutritive value and full of phytochemicals such as hentriacontane,\n\u03b2 sitosterol, tiglic acid, esters of taraxasterol, lupeol acetate, phytosterol,\neuphol, euphorbinol, isoeuphorbol, tannins, steroids, tinyatoxin, tri-methyl\nellagic acid, flavonoids, alkaloids and have demonstrated\nhypolipidemic, anti-diabetic, anti-carcinogenic, antioxidant, gastroprotective\nand analgesic activities in various scientific studies90<\/sup>. Fruits of Capparis\ndecidua<\/em> (Fig. 12) are used to prepare the famous traditional Rajasthani\ncuisine \u2018Panchkuta\u2019<\/em> and are also used\nto make pickle. Interestingly, a methanolic extract of its fruits has shown a\n32.39% clot lysis potential (Table 3). This is an important addition to its\npharmacological profile besides anti-atherosclerotic, hypolipidemic,\nantioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties91<\/sup>. Therefore, it could\nbe used in dietary modification for therapeutic benefits. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Fruits of Solanum\ntorvum<\/em> are used as vegetable and also to prepare chutney in eastern India.\nEthnic communities of the Mayurbhanj district of\nOdisha utilize its fruits for the treatment of heart\ndisease6<\/sup>. Fruits are rich in steroidal glycosides,\nphenolic compounds, isoflavonoids, etc. Interestingly, its\nfruits have shown a 31.51% clot lysis\npotential (Table 3). Besides, thrombolytic potential, fruits of S. torvum<\/em> have also demonstrated\nanti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, anti-ulcerogenic, anti-hypertensive and\nanticancer activities in scientific studies92<\/sup>. Fruits of Luffa\ncylindrica<\/em> have exhibited 45% clot lysis potential (Table 3) and used as\nvegetable in Rajasthan, Kerala and Sikkim6<\/sup>. Its fruits possess vitamin A, B5, B6, C, and dietary fibers as well as\nphyto-constituents such as gallic acid, caffeic acid, cinnamic acid, ferulic acid, ellagic acid, rutin, quercetin, luteolin,\nbobin, vitexin, myrecetin, catechin, noctacosane,\nn-heptacosan, n-hexacosane, n-tetracosane, n-tricosane, etc. Many pharmacological activities have\nalso been demonstrated by fruits of L. cylindrica<\/em> such as antioxidant,\nanti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic,\nantimicrobial and sedative which potentiate its use in daily diet93<\/sup>.\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Fruits of Averrhoa bilimbi<\/em> are rich in ascorbic\nand oxalic acids and possess carbohydrates, proteins, amino acids, coumarin,\nflavonoids, tannins, essential oils, terpenes, and valepotriates.\nBesides, many phytochemicals such as hexadecanoic acid, butyl nicotinate, (Z)-9-octadecenoic\nacid, nonanoic acid, nonanal, (Z)-9-pentacosene, (Z)-3-hexenol,\n(Z)-9-tricosene, octane, tricosane, (E)-2-decenal, 2-furfural,\n2,4-dihydroxy-6-((4-methylpentyloxy) methyl) benzaldehyde etc. have been\nisolated from its fruits94<\/sup>.\nInterestingly, anticoagulant activity of ethanol extracts of leaves and\nfruitsof A. bilimbi<\/em> has\nbeen demonstrated in normal and alloxan-induced diabetic rats after oral\nadministration at\na dose of 250 mg\/kg for 14 days,\nwhich has significantly increased prothrombin time95<\/sup>. This further\nvalidates the results obtained through in\nvitro<\/em> clot lysis activity (Table 4). Seeds of Tribulus terrestris<\/em> (Fig. 13) are\nconsumed as famine food in Rajasthan6<\/sup> and have shown to possess 33% in vitro<\/em> thrombolytic activity. T. terrestris<\/em> possesses various\nphytochemicals such as quercetin, kaempferol, isorhamnetin, rutin, tribuloside, tribulusamide\nC, tribulusterine, tribulusin A,\nharmine, benzoic\nacid, vanillic\nacid, 2-methyl benzoic acid,\nand ferulic acid.\nMoreover, it has also demonstrated antioxidant, hypoglycemic, antimicrobial,\nanti-inflammatory, cardio-protective, anticancer, anti-ageing and hepatoprotective\nproperties41,96<\/sup>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n
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Figure 12: Capparis decidua<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

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Figure 13: Tribulus terrestris<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

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Edible plants having thrombolytic\nand <\/strong>platelet\naggregation<\/strong> inhibition activities<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Inhibition of platelet aggregation is another important mechanism for maintaining the patency of blood vessels. Many of the phyto-constituents such as caffeic acid, epigallocatechin, catechin, quercetin, kaempferol, apigenin, gallic acid present in the plants listed in this paper have also shown platelet aggregation inhibition activity97<\/sup>. Likewise, some other compounds, such as Piperin, isolated from Piper nigrum<\/em> have shown inhibition of platelet aggregation through attenuation of cytosolic phospholipase A2<\/sub> and thromboxane A2<\/sub> synthase involving arachidonic acid (AA) metabolism98<\/sup>. Curcumin; a polyphenol isolated from Curcuma longa,<\/em> also demonstrated platelet aggregation inhibition by activating adenosine A2A<\/sub> receptor-stimulated protein kinase A activation and phosphorylation of vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein99<\/sup>. Gingerol, shogaol, paradol, and gingerol analogues isolated from Zingiber officinale<\/em> have also demonstrated anti-platelet function100<\/sup>. Similarly, (+)-nootkatone isolated from Cyperus rotundus<\/em> has also shown significant in vitro<\/em> collagen-, thrombin-, and AA-induced platelet aggregation inhibition in a dose-dependent manner as well as ex vivo platelet aggregation inhibition in mice blood by increasing tail bleeding time101<\/sup>. Sesamum indicum<\/em> also possesses many bioactive molecules such as sesamin, epi-sesamin, sesamol, \u03b3-tocopherol, and sesamolin. Among these, epi-sesamin has shown a strong anti-thrombotic effect by preventing thrombin and activated blood coagulation factor X production, prolonging activated partial thromboplastin time and prothrombin time, reducing thrombin-catalyzed platelet aggregation in mice as well as inhibiting TNF\u03b1-induced secretion of plasminogen activator inhibitor type 1 in human umbilical vein endothelial cells102<\/sup>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Cuscutaroside A and\nits acetyl derivative,\nas well as scrophenoside B; isolated from whole plants of Cuscuta reflexa<\/em> (Fig.\n14), have\ndemonstrated a weak platelet aggregation inhibitory activity induced by\ncollagen with IC50<\/sub> values of 291.4\u2009\u00b1\u200947.9 \u03bcg\/ml,\n63.8\u2009\u00b1\u20094.4 \u03bcg\/ml, and 180.5\u2009\u00b1\u20096.7 \u03bcg\/ml, respectively. However, an acetylated derivative\nof Cuscutaroside A has shown strong platelet aggregation inhibition induced by\nAA with an IC50<\/sub> value of 72.6\u2009\u00b1\u200910.5 \u03bcg\/ml103<\/sup>. A dose-dependent\nadenosine diphosphate induced platelet aggregation inhibition has been\ndemonstrated by 70% ethanolic extract of Eclipta\nprostrata<\/em> leaves with 74.55%; 65.60%; 48.00% and 39.08% inhibition at the\nconcentration of 100, 80, 60 and 40 mg\/ml respectively with an IC50<\/sub>\nvalue of 59.02 mg\/ml104<\/sup>.\nThe mechanism behind the\nanti-platelet property of E. prostrata<\/em> and the corresponding bioactive molecules needs to be researched.\nHowever, all these studies indirectly support the anti-thrombotic\npotential of these edible plant species and provide motivation\nfor initiating further research in this direction.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n
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Figure 14: Cuscuta reflexa<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

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Click here to view Figure<\/a><\/p>\n<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n\n\n\n
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Figure 15: Boerhavia diffusa<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n

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COVID-19 treatment potential of\nedible thrombolytic plants<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Recent pandemic of\nCOVID-19 has hugely affected the\nhuman population and thrombotic complications are one of the\nmajor causes of morbidity and mortality associated with this infectious viral\ndisease105<\/sup>.\nCOVID-19-related coagulation disorders were associated with an increase in\nD-Dimer, fibrin degradation products, prothrombin time, activated partial\nthromboplastin time, and a decrease in antithrombin106<\/sup>. Interestingly,\nherbal medicine was also employed to combat this virus and several in vitro<\/em>, in vivo<\/em>,<\/em> and clinical trials\nhave been carried out and\nare currently underway107<\/sup>.\nPlants like Curcuma longa, Nigella\nsativa, Zingiber officinale, Piper nigrum, Ocimum tenuiflorum, Cuscuta reflexa,\nMoringa oleifera<\/em>,<\/em> etc. were used in\nherbal treatment and prevention of COVID-19. Some of the isolated\nphytochemicals such as quercetin, piperin, curcumin, apigenin, kaempferol,\nluteolin, thymol, rutin, eugenol, ursolic acid, caffeic acid, and oleanolic acid\nhave also shown their potential against the SARS-CoV-2 virus and\nexhibited anticoagulant activity106<\/sup>. In view of their thrombolytic potential, the addition of these\nplants to the\ndiet for treatment or for prevention purposes seems quite relevant\nbecause this has been proven in scientific research related to the efficacy of these\nplants in COVID-1965,107<\/sup>.\n<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The present article\nhas compiled the\nIndian edible plants having thrombolytic\npotential which are commonly\nused in the diets\nof various ethnic groups without knowing their multifarious beneficial effects on human health.\nTheoretically, it is possible to get benefit from these plants\nin the situation of altered thrombolytic states. In this context, the work of\nSarkar16<\/sup>\nis worth quoting, who has advised that few of the plants, for example, Boerhavia diffusa<\/em> (Fig. 15),\nChenopodium album<\/em>,<\/em>\n<\/em>etc.,\nshould be used during the\nacute stage of heart disease such as acute myocardial\ninfarction. He has stressed that during the acute stage, the diet should\npreferably include these vegetables. The rationale behind it could be their thrombolytic\npotential, antioxidant property, anti-platelet and hypolipidemic effect.\nMoreover, these vegetables are\neasily digestible without posing undue stress on the heart, which requires rest\nduring the recovery period,\nand the gut\nfavorable because of high fiber content,\nwhich does not allow constipation. Because straining on defecation\nduring this crucial time is also hazardous and can cause arrhythmia and sudden\ndeath. Scientific studies have also shown that the intake of dietary fibers can reduce the risk of\nCVD through various means108<\/sup>.\nFor example, a recent cohort study\nin South Korea has also indicated the role of quality plant food in the prevention\nof metabolic syndrome109<\/sup>. Therefore,\ndietary selection of plants with the\nabove-mentioned properties could be helpful for management of CVD.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Safety issues<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Though the edible plants\nmentioned in this article have thrombolytic activity, they should be consumed\nwith caution. Over-consumption\nof the plants may cause adverse effects. For example, studies have shown that\nintake of curcumin in doses of 500-12000 mg produced symptoms like diarrhea,\nyellow stool,\nheadache, and rashes110<\/sup>.\nSimilarly, heartburn, nausea, abdominal pain, gas, bloating, etc. are some of\nthe reported side effects of consumption of Z.\nofficinale<\/em> (750-2000mg)111<\/sup>. Fruits of A. bilimbi<\/em> can cause nephro- and neurotoxicity112<\/sup> and\nconsumption of 80% fresh plants of T. terrestris<\/em>\nhas shown harmful effects on cardiac muscle, liver\nand kidney of goats\nand sheep113<\/sup>. In various animal studies, after consumption of M. oleifera, <\/em>genotoxicity, kidney and\nliver damage, necrosis of splenic blood vessels, and neuronal glial\ncells have been\nreported114<\/sup>. Hepatotoxicity and\ngastrointestinal disorders\nafter consumption of C. sinensis<\/em> on\nempty stomach have been reported115<\/sup>. S. oleracea<\/em> grown in heavy metal polluted sites can create risk for\ncancer116<\/sup>. Likewise, nitrate poisoning has been observed after\ningestion of Brassica oleracea<\/em> var. capitata<\/em>117<\/sup>. Some of\nthese plants such as T. domingensis<\/em>118<\/sup>, B. purpurea<\/em>119<\/sup>, O. tenuiflorum<\/em>120<\/sup>, S. torvum<\/em>121<\/sup>, P. granatum<\/em>122<\/sup>, B. monnieri<\/em>123<\/sup> and M. koenigii<\/em>124<\/sup> have yet to be\ntested for significant toxicity. However, plants having higher thrombolytic activity\nshould be recommended cautiously to patients already taking anti-platelet and\nfibrinolysis enhancing drugs and supplements because there is a possibility of\nbleeding.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Conclusion<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

 The present article provides an overview of 43 plants which have\ndemonstrated thrombolytic potential and are also being utilized by ethnic\ncommunities for edible purposes.\nIf these species could be added as a supplement to the diets of people who are predisposed \/\nsusceptible to\ncardio-vascular diseases, they\nmay serve the role\nof preventive agents. Addition of these plant species to the diet, both before and\nafter the development\nof disease,\ncould be beneficial in myriad ways due to the multifarious therapeutic\npotential of plants,\nwhich mostly act in a synergistic manner. However, large scale\nclinical studies could be executed for scientific evaluation of the effect of the addition of these\nplant species in the\ndiet on the prevention\nor betterment of CVD. In this regard, the two\nedible plants with the highest clot lysis potential, namely, Baccaurea ramiflora<\/em>\nand Bauhinia purpurea,<\/em> should be screened for their in vivo<\/em>\nthrombolytic potential on a priority basis. <\/p>\n\n\n\n

Conflict of Interest<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Funding source<\/strong>s<\/p>\n\n\n\n

References<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

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